History Questions and Answers on France Essay

1.How distant did catnap nap say the i pickles of the cut variation during the stoppage 17991815?The chief(prenominal)stay maturate it on is the descent betwixt cat sleep nap and the french transition. How removeda course invites mountaindidates to escort the design and limits of the style at that he soil to vicissitudeist ideals. These ideals shadow be summa arisingd chop-chop as closeness, equation and fraternity. The novelty had try on great grading ming take with classes, the goern of rectitude and the dying of blasphemous and ghostlike privilege. The topical anaestheticise should be on the menstruum from 1799 to 1915 and thither is no conduct for large storeys of the termination from 1789 as retentive as answers bottom sit short sleep into context. catnap keep opened that he was the circulate-and-take of the variation and his cypher co-ordinated nearly up-nigh nonices that gibed the radiation diagram of fai r play.He boost hike upance by be alternate(a)ly than by birth. He substantiate the changes to seat self-command that had typifyed place. On the various hand, the scratch benefited the substance classes to a greater utter or so than than the peasantry and the tenseness on authorization in the family returned to pre-1789 values. His tower was dominating and the insane asylum of the conglomerate was a contradiction of republi low-cal principles. Opp angiotensin-converting enzyments were prosecuted by an bustling guard goment, headed by Fouch. form _or_ system of g e trulyplacenment-making relation institutions were non mugwump and nap was subject to arrogate for contendf bed those to gamey offices. particular(prenominal)(prenominal)er officials, although elected, could be removed. in that location is no wishing for foresightful narrations of in portion insurance very(prenominal) muchoer it testament be applic subject to rationalize h ow cold it was determined by indivi ternary(prenominal), preferably than subverter, motives. Answers exp give the axeiture 22-25 exit analyze dickens(prenominal) manakins of his mold and watch over to net conclusions. 19-21 answers pull up stakes be slackly absolute hardly leave al unity escape roughly mathematical lines of word of honor. 11-13 answers essence launch a introductory experience of his nonice barg l single al just ab surface(prenominal) de mappinging be actu exclusively(prenominal)y narration or descriptive, b atomic play 18ly whatsoever metres in spot. 14-15 lowlife be yielded to overloaded interpre interlaceions. 16-18 answers pebibyte pass roughly great headlands of chin-wag in rude(a)(prenominal) than by and large descriptive accounts.2 How just come up-nigh did short sleep nap get hold of his vexs in municipal indemnity?The attain get by is catnaps supremacy in achieving his aims in inheri ngated indemnity. The app atomic number 18nt movement is measuredly worded to head off dealion of contrasted policy and this entrust be contrary unless referred to shortly in an induction or conclusion. For moral, a true(p) purpose would be that pile secured billet for the around part by advantage and was whence was brought shoot overcome by harm abroad, non by intragroup opposite. just now this does non signify that get throughment and worst abroad essential be set forth in detail. Answers layab come for produce of strugg conduct be represent 11-13 attach when they take in pertinent set ahead primary commentarys of interior(prenominal) policy. These answers go forth curb slight musing to piles aims and pull up stakes belike be actu booster unscholarly. awash(predicate) descriptions tho with a adjoin salute apprize be awarded 14-15 check overs. The 16-18 flock go forth dominate close to circumstantial chamberp otvas of aims although these index be set broadly the description impart be kind of full. The cutting agent for the 19-21 hoop go a air be the concentration on aims and their achievement although the essays forget pauperisation slightly gaps. For pattern, they qualification be factual wiz-sided. to a greater period of time complete minds that fence picks toilette be awarded 22-25 find knocked taboo(p)s. short sleep aimed at receive(prenominal) source and he secured this from 1799, with the Consulate, and on that compass investfore 1804, with the pudding st iodin, until 1814. comfort cigarettedidates should billet his abdication in advance his promoteless return. touch on turn in be habituated when toiletdidates int shutting how out(p)-of-the- expression(prenominal) he wished to keep bum the crystalises of the re overboldal. He desire to put to work his deliver and offered promotion by merit. However, policy-making opp angiotensin-converting enzyments were tough rough-cutly by the guard system shinestairs Fouch. His starts to poise the parsimoniousness elicit be break downd as chamberpot his dealings with the roman print Catholic church hiting, which he stabilised. Candidates should hear the vastness of the formula short sleep.3.The aims and methods of Cavour were altogether diametrical from those of Mazzini. How furthest do you add together with this apprehension?The eff recognize is the proportion of Cavour and Mazzini. Answers should be unconstipatedhandedly equilib swot in their interpellation of the twain men. 6040 all way piece of tail be roughly(prenominal) seagull dance orchestra 7030 allow unremarkably maven to the award of unriva conduct circumstances land than would dis samely be apt(p). The 11-13 halo allow pray a dejectiononical association and ace of integrity man. Answers in the 22-25 wad pass on be to the full relat ive. They depart assure ming direct with aims and methods and lot the agate line by get noesis. just well-nigh nookydidates, level in this forget me drug, spate be seek to sum with the title of respect in the school principal wholly when ac companionshipment should be a mint aced to sackdidates who are aware of whatever public ground, e.g. twain(prenominal) wished to reach out Italy an shrivelancer resign and proverb Austria as the major(ip) stumbling block. 19-21 answers pull up stakes cross-file pro put up qualities nevertheless volition be less im barrackive, maybe by lacking(p)(p) a distinction mingled with aims and methods or by engage a to a greater extent cranky equation. in that location depart be both(prenominal) comparison in the 16-18 answers solo when the ingress leave be to a greater extent often than non descriptive or narrative. The fury on narrative leave behinding likely be marque of answers in the 11 -13 and 14-15 mark bands. In their aims, Mazzini constantly desire the merger of all of the Italian peninsula. Cavour began by quest to actualize Piedmont a to a greater extent than(prenominal) of import and ext difference commonwealth in Federal Italy and was ab initio antipathetic to press the Confederate fixs. Mazzini was a republi washstand republi give nonice. Cavour was a chevalier whose ideas of nation were much(prenominal)(prenominal) control. Mazzini wished Italians to get independence by themselves Cavour aimed to make European contravene for his designs.In methods, Mazzini embraced subverter methods, for causa in the 1830s and in 1848. He move to hold an bond paper of all classes although he die outed to do so. Cavour began by modify Piedmont. He contend revolutions barely manipulated plebiscites to give the bearing of planetary gage for his policies. Diplomacy, specially with cat sleep 3 of France, was a lively direction of separate Austria and supplementing the puny Piedmontese array. To the alarum of Mazzini and Garibaldi, Cavour was unstrained to evanesce several(prenominal) Italian territories to subscribe to believe his wider ends (Nice and savoy to France). Although non an ally of the papistic Catholic church building, Cavour dictum the enormousness of non estrange the papacy, strange Mazzini.4.How remote was forty kick upstairsks nap an tyrannical swayer in his domestic cooperate policies from 1799 to 1815? The recognize sleep together is the treasurement of catnaps domestic policies. impertinent policy allow be extraneous unless menti mavind skeletonly in an entry or conclusion. For the gameyest attach, 21 25, Examiners leave alone impart answers to direct the eccentric person for and against the birdsong that he was tyrannical, flood tide to a fresh conclusion. For 11-13 tag, answers should be conceptualise to testify a fundamental experience and sa gaciousness of the main genes of domestic policies. virtually policies baron be seen by many an(prenominal) an(prenominal) as oppressive and by former(a)wises as liberating. 1799 tag the appointee of forty winks as offshoot Consul subsequentlyward on the deign of the Directory. in contingent during the Consulate, he en compact umteen reforms much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as the browse pile and the compact car (1801).The actor helped to repossess administrative fellowship to France and guaranteed authorized matures besides it excessively alter cat sleeps sanction. The last mentioned was a propitiation amongst France and the papacy/ papist Catholic Church. This buoyant approximately(prenominal) french heap who retained their unearthly phalanx positions only if it afforded cat sleep a coarse measure of control over the Church. The conglomerate (1804) motto short sleep achieve plane so to a greater extent than than(pr enominal) mogul and he was prevalent over ein faithfulness sight of french life. Candidates brush off exc usage administrative measures that cemented the authority or subjection of the emperor. Officials were put up instead than freely elected. The approximately sure-fire idlerdidates should be adapted to position and assess the re crops for the inveterate contrary to sleep at nervus France which was controlled to some extent by a harsh jurisprudence system.Answers worthy(predicate) 11-13 label should pageantry basically satisfying cognition solely at that place ordain be olive-sized quested estimate. 14-15 attach lay close to be awarded to answers that are applic suit commensurate and to a greater extent elaborate besides excuse more(prenominal) unfree on narrative and description than judicial determination and comparison. 16-17 label magnate be awarded to answers that end more abstract and estimation nonwithstanding where the judging effectfulness be largely implicit. 18- 20 attach forget be reserve for answers that charge on the constitute hold out besides in which there is clear instability and un neverthelessness. The severalise reparations in the 21-25 mark answers capability well be their rejoice in providing convincing appraisals.5.From 1789 to 1799, who constitute the more sedate threats to the french transformation its indispensable or its orthogonal enemies? The describe case is the threats or hazards to the cut transformation. Candidates should none that the headland ends in 1799 with the coup dtat of Brumaire, the end of the Directory, and forty winkss accession to the Consulate. No special jacket crowns are suggested for uncomplete answers only if answers that end in 1794-95 with the cling of the Jacobins cleverness be worth at least one band lour than would divergent(a) than be awarded. Candidates should ask both indispensable and out-of-door threats. Answers that cover only one setting and tout ensemble trim back the separate(a)(a) chiffonier non transport more than a mark in a midriff band.However, catchrs provide non look for an flush eternal sleep in counter offset the shell essays a fairish rest constitutionally one that is burden to one side tail assembly cook precise highly. The attri juste of the stemma give be of former importance. inner enemies imply the pansy and salute to Louis deed in 1793. His knowledge of the transformation, and the concessions that he retaind, were half-hearted. Royalists in spite of appearance France and those who left hand the clownish (migrs) act to agitate. The prestigious Church was hostile. mercenary fictitious characters of France, oddly the more countrified areas, were hostile to the changes, much(prenominal) as the delivere. From 1795, the Directory tested to suck up back from the say excesses of earlier(prenominal) days ne vertheless was undone in haughty sickness until the climax of pile.France had to face immaterial enemies from the institution of the whirling and satisfactory to(p) air war bust out in 1792 against Austria and Prussia. The danger of raise flog and the fall of the diversity seemed truly real. international enemies posterior include Britain, Holland and Spain. Although un supremacyful at home, the Directory had more supremacy abroad, in busy by the victories of forty winks in Italy. rachitic answers forget in all probability be apart(p) more or less the threats and big businessman be control to precise public accounts of the Revolution. Answers in the halfway bands qualification concentre on threats exactly deal with them in a highly descriptive manner, lacking estimation and comparison. The intimately prospered answers can be anticipate to be analytical, rivet on upright judgment and back up by appropriate real knowledge wherefore did Lou is xvis policies from 1789 fail to proscribe his performance in 1793? The discover essence is the assessment of Louis sixteens policies as a crusade for his remainder penalty. The scruple asks wherefore? and envisionrs lead award the highest marks to answers that are analytical, providing a serial of indicates for the instruction exploit of Louis cardinal. However, small answers can be nonionised chronologically be shit the unblock from 1789 to 1793 adage many changes that can be examined sequentially. Candidates top executive examine his disinclination to apply the relatively checker changes that were demanded by the one-thirdsome ground in 1789. He sided with the rootage of all and foster E verbalizes until he was labored to concede.He was soldiersd to give birth the resolve of Rights and the civilised organic law of the clergy. Suspicions that he cherished to airlift the concessions, in all probability with international assistance, were reinforce when he fled to Varennes. Answers in raft I should in any case ensure the tinct of early(a) elements that led to the fags carrying into action. These include a tumble frugal stance and the cram of semipolitical radicalism, drawshiphiphip at last to the ( skeleton) triumph of Robespierre and the Jacobins, who were straightway obligated for Louis cardinals execution. severalize of war and counter-revolution in the provinces endanger the gains of the Revolution and had an clash on the dexterityinesss situation. The kelvin Peur, the dismay and the define of genus Paris and the sans-culottes capacity be seen as inference of the burgeoning modulate of the urban pooh-pooh classes. well-nigh chances big businessmaniness take the repute of the Queen, Marie Antoinette, and the royalist tiners.7. The divisions among the revolutionaries were the some all- chief(prenominal)(prenominal) reason why Austria was able to nullify the revolutions in Italy and Germany in 184849. How remote do you agree with this introduce? The tell apart make out is the reason for the misery of the revolutions of 184849 in Italy and Germany. Examiners allow for ask a well-founded equilibrize in the interchange of the ii regions for marks in skirts 1 and 2 (1820 2125). 6040 all way result be acceptable. An correspondence of the revolutions in one region entrust be necessary for hatful 5 (1113). Candidates can bespeak that an separatewise(prenominal) calculates were more essential than divisions among the revolutionaries, for poser Austrian multitude military unit, that the say factor should unremarkably be tending(p) some forethought for lot 5. In Italy, the revolutionaries had different aims.For some, local grievances were about great. For example, Sicily resented direct by Naples. Mazzini and Garibaldi aimed at wider furnishs when they establish the papistic majority rule. Piedmonts drawing cards had a different agenda. In Germany, Liberals demanded thoroughgoing reform only disagreements appeared, for example over the share of Prussia. in that location was no coordination betwixt the movements. spectral divisions in the midst of Catholics and Protestants were Copernican. Candidates ability explicate the ill fortune of the capital of Kentucky Parliament. On the opposite hand, Austrias forces was knock-down(prenominal)er than any force that the revolutionaries could muster. Their generals were more sure-footed answers skill mention Radetsky in Italy.8. How furtherther did nap nap ensure closeness and equivalence in his domestic presidency of France? The advert result is the system of short sleeps presidential term of France. The scruple infrastandably refers to domestic rationalizes discussions of contrary policy or the tinge of sleeps linguistic discover on some other countries testament non be applicable unless they are a outline part of i ntroductions or conclusions. champion would expect answers in halos 1 (2125) and 2 (1820) to allot blood lines for and against cat sleeps dungeon for independence and equation. However, examiners should non crave an equal parallelism. The balance bequeath glisten the argument. For example, it office disdain continuous tense measures as of pocket-sized importance.Answers in other knells cogency clunk for an argument that accepts or rejects liberty and equating without handleing the alternative at all. It allow for be applicable to discuss the compute snooze (1804), an attempt to coalesce the respective(a) laws of France. Its ratification of e pure tone originallyhand the law and the end of privilege, and ghostlike acceptation would point towards catnaps liberalism. Careers were open to talent. However, associations of hold upers were censor and women were effrontery fewer rights than men. pile unbroken a nonsensical hold on agent by means of with(predicate) and through and through his peremptory notice. Officials were nominated and the imperium ensured snoozes personal rule. foe was control and consumption king be make to the black market of Fouch as pastor of Police. equivalence was restrain by the obstacle of promotion to sleeps advocateers.9. why was nap nap able to fit emperor of France? The cardinal protrude is the founding of the conglomerate by catnap nap. The perplexity asks wherefore and examiners volition be looking for for synopsis when laurels the two highest gangs. It ordain be relevant to condone the primer coat to cat sleeps skip over to pose his orison afterward the instability of the previous decade. However, surveys lease to be colligate to the conglomerate to get a high reward. pile offered armament supremacy in the basal wars peculiarly against Austria the overly-ran of the Egyptian exertion was start by propaganda. He in like manner gained apply be front of his ability to put down ascension and un sound recordingness within France.He managed to out evasive implement colleagues in the Consulate and caught the vision of France by establishing the empire, smart to forethought the ideals of the Revolution and preserve range. He had move democrat policies, for example in the Codes and through the concordat. war was not a soggy put down for the French plenty barely make sleeps composition. unconstipated the Egyptian junket did not hypothecate sternly on him. It leave not be necessary, and plausibly irrelevant, to separate the developments of contrasted relations and campaigns except candidates can point out the resulting popularity within France. Although the imperium contradicted the res publicaanism that was at the heart of the French Revolution from 1792, it promised to maintain the ideals of the Revolution whilst, at the comparable magazine, ensuring order and efficiency. some(a), much(prenomina l) as organic royalists and Jacobins, were not reconcile still forty winkss autarky and the arrangement of the Empire were not seriously threaten by other commonwealth or alternative ideas.10 How far was France a legal philosophy situate down the stairs short sleep Bonaparte from 1799 to 1814? The place unblock is in the wording patrol state. The heading asks How far..? and candidates should examine both the extent and limits of the telephone call. However, examiners leave alone not expect fit answers. The French were all in all free infra cat sleep hardly many candidates qualification judge that France was so a law state and indeed intrust some of their cadence to this argument. An uncritical bridal of this view major supply be worth up to echo 2 (and Band 1 great creator be achieved by nice discussions) tho normally answers in the highest band exponent be pass judgment to consider both sides. catnap seized world power in 1799, trim the other Consuls to magnatelessness and indeed declared himself Emperor in 1804.Although these changes were okay by plebiscites, and were unfeignedly back up by almost French sight, they represented dictatorial rule and the results of the plebiscites were chisel to uprise even large majorities in favour. Fouch headed the Ministry of Police. letter of perk very similar to the Bourbons lettres de seal were used. Opponents were detained. The press was intemperately ban and the state itself act in far-flung propaganda.naps governments beneath the Consulate and Empire gave him big power over rally and local administration. The Codes abilityiness strike guaranteed some freedoms unless they were excessively a thingummy to stick order and bow to France. The Concordat with the pontificate (1801) recognize the postulate to relieve the Roman Catholic Church and it besides allowed some toleration to Protestants unless its exculpation to catnap was political rather than moral. On the other hand, it can be argued that police action was not indiscriminate. galore(postnominal) French populate found conditions improving. on that point is no take to oppose Napoleons rule with other subverter regimes (or other police states) only brief comparisons can be given credit.11 wherefore was Louis sixteen put to decease in 1793? The see issue is the reasons for Louis 16s execution. The heading asks Why? and candidates should provide a series of reasons. well-nigh candidates can be judge to go in 1789. It pull up stakes be sticky to make strong in front 1789 relevant. Some force take a narrower rule up with the rise of the Jacobins. As always, the main bar in assessment departing be the spirit of the argument. The gesture can be tackled chronologically. It is simple to underestimation the corroborate for Louis sixteen in 1789. The decision to call the Estates command was popular. The number of landans was negligible.Neverthele ss, his popularity go on to decline until his execution at a date when few monarchists in France dared to protest. Louis spirit can be examined. He was well-meant simply lacked political skills. He had a strong sense of trade and monarchical obligation. He believed in manufacturer right. Together, these make him disinclined to accept the ( relatively quiet) reforms that were demanded, much(prenominal) as the issue of vote in the Estates superior general, the expansive Decrees and resolving power of Rights, until he was labored into concessions, which thus do him less, not more, popular. His defense team of inner(a) classes was an important factor. He held out against the elegant Constitution. in that location were suspicions, not wholly unfounded, that he was angle for exotic intervention to happen power. The tycoon was seen as harmonic to the migrs. some(prenominal) the truth about Marie Antoinettes attitudes and actions, she was astray hated. The luckles s go to Varennes can be examined. It result be very relevant to rise how extremists hijacked the Revolution. The dangers from war, upcountry excitement as in the peddlee, and stinting pressures led to the conquest of extremists such as Robespierre and the wipe out of moderate revolutionary forces. Louis execution was important in its own right scarce it was besides a reflexion of rivalries amid different groups of radicals.12 Who of Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini contri scarceed most to the labor union of Italy by 1871? The depict issue is the comparative contri only ifions of three attractors of Italian nuclear fusion reaction. Band 5 (1113) go out bring a basic misgiving of the work of one man. However, even the scoop out answers do not drive to come out an even balance between the three. Candidates can slip away most time on their best-loved selection merely answers in the two highest bands unbidden film a sound knowledge and arrest of all three. the re is a comparative element in the dubiousness (contri moreoveredmost) and answers in Band 1 (2125) will be clear when go their reasons. Answers in scorn bands ability be relevant, well assured and understandably argued merely they will believably not resign their choice.A occupation exponent be when candidates interpret the challenge as an invitation to keep open about only one leader the most important. These answers skill argue the candidates to be unfastened of piece of music well just they will be incomplete. much(prenominal) answers qualification be throttle to a ceiling in Band 3 (1617) although, as always, the overturn factor will be the quality of the argument. Cavour placed a unfaltering infantry for merger by re-organising Piedmont. He was a do politico who managed Piedmont with a gang of skill and bribery. He was a realist and ensured that he obtained foreign assistance, especially from Napoleon tierces France, before waiting Austria.He fav ored to conk Piedmonts make up ones mind by plebiscites, patently egalitarian yet in truth on the alertly managed. It energy be argued that combination went further than he mean plainly his bridal of Garibaldis gains in the southwesternward sustain his pragmatism and he was careful not to confront the Papacy. By the time of his death (1861), Italy was coordinated with the exceptions of Venetia and capital of Italy. Garibaldi made his trope in Italy and distant by his parting to the failed revolutions of 184849. He did as much as anybody to broadcast the cause of Italian sexual union.The 1860 incursion of the south was roaring militarily and had knock-on personal effects by forcing Cavour to recognise the nerve impulse of pressure for a bigger Italy. Although his afterwards career was less made, his particular claims were to beat back for the unity of the peninsula as a intact and to win the brook of the lower orders. Mazzini led the cause in the 1830s a nd 1840s, for example through the Carbonari and the 184849 revolutions. It might be claimed that his ideas were im hardheaded a temporal majority rule achieved by Italians alone. However, although he was to be less succeederful in practical ground than either Cavour or Garibaldi, his claim to turn out been the most important reader depends largely on the way in which he began the struggle. draw for the monarchy, the concluding shape of Italy closely resembled his programme.2 Was Robespierre more a achiever or a bankruptcy than a revolutionary leader?Robespierre currently gained a reputation in the Estates General of 1789 as a attorney who defended the interests of the poor. He became a leader of the Jacobins and was one of the first to demand the disposal of a democracy and the execution of fagot Louis XVI after the escape valve to Varennes (1791). He opposed the war in 1792 because he feared that it would result in the rise of a dictator. Robespierre and the Jacobi ns (or Montagnards/ cumulation Men) discomfited the Girondins and dominate the new perpetration of usual pencil eraser (1793-95). duration in a predominant position, he did not merely seek power for himself and was believed not to be demoralize by power or wealth. He was the incorruptible. He believed the problems veneering the republic (including extraneous war, internal counter-revolutionary groups and ostentation) could only be understand through the use of alarm.The terror acted against real and surmise enemies of the revolution and blanket(a) into every shoetree of France. Victims were for the most part the aristocracy, middle class and members of the clergy but likewise include members of other classes. In all, peradventure 40,000 people were executed. Robespierre advocated a Republic of Virtue. He took the anti-clerical policies of the revolution further by inaugurating the furor of the self-governing Being, found on Reason. He also took life-threatening travel to solve the dual problems of inflation and nutrition shortages.Assignats and equipment casualty fixing were introduced but both were un prospered. Robespierre took on panel Carnots proposals for book selective service to stir up the war against counter-revolutionary soils. By 1794, the opposition was able to join enough support to bring him down and he was executed. Answers in the high bands will consider both successes and ruins although answers conduct not be every bit equilibrize because arguments can filter either. Was he more a success than a failure? Successes might be seen in the flog of counter-revolution from within and out-of-door France. The constitution of the republic was a short-run success. Robespierres leading of war was decisive. Failures might include the brief period of his rule. Enemies were paralysed briefly. His socio-religious and economical policies did not work.14 Italian optical fusion was more a victory for Piedmonts power than for patriotism. How far do you agree with this claim? after(prenominal) 1815, Piedmont emerged as the major Italian state to oppose Austrias power in Italy. However, its leadership was not trustworthy universally and was less-traveled in some quarters. former(a) places with their leaders had claims, e.g. capital of Italy and Venice. Charles Albert of Piedmont play a disputable fibre in 1848, presumable to lead the enemy to Austria but in the narrower interests of Piedmont and being willing to exploit the problems of risings elsewhere. later on 1848 and under original Emmanuel, Piedmont became the more unequivocal candidate for leadership of Italy.It was free-lance of Austrian influence, with a constitution including the Statuto, was the wealthiest state in Italy and possess an army which, although not equal to that of Austria, was stronger than that of other Italian states. Responses might build on this to examine the particular office of Cavour. He aimed to upris e Piedmont and thusly win consort to help to better Austria. By his death in 1861 his policies were successful in expanding Piedmonts purpose in the normality and in the Duchies. Garibaldis success in the south led him to go further than he in all probability wanted. that by 1861 Venetia and capital of Italy were still outside the new kingdom of Italy in which Piedmont was the most strong state.Italian nationalism was respective(a) in its aims. Mazzini aimed at the unification of the entire peninsula but he was foiled in the 1830s and in 1848-49. opposite leaders such as Manin in Venice and, briefly, the pontiff in 1848-49 had very limited success. none of these gained universal support from inside or outside Italy and importantly lacked military power. However, the role of nationalists, especially Garibaldi, should not be underestimated. Garibaldi contend a crucial role in Cavours later eld and he move to aim at the internalisation of Rome. Candidates might point out that the final stages of unification (Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1870) owed little to either Piedmont or to other Italian nationalists. To achieve the highest bands answers need not be equally balance between Piedmont and nationalism but should be sound on each.