How businesses Work Essay

Introduction For this unit I will give a clear description of the activity, aims and objectives of my chosen business, a description of four functional areas of the business including human resources. Descriptions of the equal opportunities of employees are safeguarded by legislation, an explanation of different functional ways to communicate with each other and external contact. The company I have chosen for this unit is Tesco the reason I chose Tesco is because it is a very successfully growing company. Tesco is public limited company (Plc). (Means that any one can be shareholder) Public limited companies are the largest type of privately owned enterprise in the UK. Tesco sells Groceries, cloths, CDs, videos, DVDs, books, computer games, electrical, school equipment, wines and other alcohol drinks. Tesco offers finances such as loans, credit cards, savings, flexible, and mortgages, travel money. They also offer insurance such as motor insurance, home insurance, life insurance, pet insurance, travel insurance and breakdown cover. One of the other services they offer is Internet shopping, making shopping much easier for customers. Tesco all so has an in store pharmacy. Throughout out years Tesco’s in store pharmacy grown in to one of the country’s leading pharmacy chains. Tesco is currently the leading supermarket in UK. Tesco as a pretty good competition from other supermarket such as Sainsbury, Safeway. But Tesco is cheaper then mot of the other supermarkets and they offer lot more products. Recording to Tesco on average sainsbury’s is 4% more expensive then Tesco and Safeway are 10% more expensive then Tesco. There are more then 700-plus stores and many distribution centres are located in United Kingdom. They have several office sites in the UK. And Ireland, where they’re key support functions is based. The majority of office staff is based in Hertfordshire, Tesco has been operating on a international basis for long time, anticipating the need to become a major retail name in key regions, they moved into central Europe, where they have a strong presence in Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic and the dynamic Asian market. The aims and objectives for Tesco The main aim of tesco is to make profit, just like any other business. This is a important aim because if they don’t make any money then they won’t be able to fund there business and keep it up and running, the other aims are To exceed competition and to increase the number of customers. To recruit new employees with the potential to do well. The most important aim for Tesco is to provide a highly competitive service to the customers. To survive as a business. To expand the business worldwide and to increase image status. To be environmental friendly. The departments of Tesco Customer service, Human resources, Marketing, Finance, Administration, Distribution, Research & Development Production, The functional areas of Tesco Human Resources Human resources are concerned with the employees who work for Tesco. Tesco regard staff as there most important resource. This is impotent recourse for tesco because if the employees were not motivated with good pay and working conditions then tesco would not be very successful because tesco won’t have any workers. But if the tesco motivate their staff and offer good working place for all the staff then they would be keen to work. This helps the Tesco to achieve its aims. The overall purpose of the human resource function is to attract and retain good high quality staff. The human resources department deals with: Recruiting new employees and firing employees Working conditions Health Safety Promotion Development Training Human resources staffs are involved in specific activities such as Recruitment, Retention and Dismissal of staff, The training, development and promotion of staff, Monitoring and maintenance of good working conditions, Liaison with employee’s organizations and trade unions, Health and safety. Tesco recruit by advertising in newspapers, Internet to find the experience workers. Tesco Retention their staff by motivating them and organizing social events, flexible hours. They also offer discounts, holiday pay, and sick pay. Another way to motivate and retain employees is to give them more responsibility, so they fell more involved. Tesco won’t dismiss an employee with out a reason, but if they do they would give them severance pay. Tesco train their employees on the job, so the workers can get use to the surroundings. Off the job training is when employees go somewhere else to train. Development and promotion of staff- if an employee’s work at their best and heaver good punctuality then there is a good chance of that employee getting promotion. When the employee gets a promotion he has to go a way and do the training course. Job roles in human resources: Human resources manager: Human resources manager works most at the store level and tells everyone where to work. Recruitment Officer: Responsible for the recruitment and selection of staff. Training/staff development officer: responsible for training and staff development. Personal / staffing officer: keeping staff records, monitoring staff welfare. Health and safety officer: overseeing all health and safety matters, accident monitoring and prevention. HR administrative assistants: administrative work relating to the human resources function. Administration The administration department helps tesco to run smoothly from day to day. The admin department covers tasks such as clerical work, collecting and distributing mail, keeping records, and organizing meetings, responding to enquiries. Admin is also charge of cleaning, maintenance and security. The administration department all so orders and distributes office goods for Tesco. Administration is also involved in communications between departments e.g. send messages, fax, telephone and receiving and sending mail. They store all the documents and records used by tesco and are responsible for their safekeeping. All theses small jobs which keeps tesco running efficiently. The activities of the Administration department Keeping the company records, Maintenance, Clerical work, Job roles in Administration Company secretary: they are senior executives who are responsible for the legal affairs of Tesco; they deal with shareholders and arrange the directors meetings. Reprographic supervisor: they have the responsibility of making sure the smooth running of the central reprographic section in tesco. Security: they are responsible for the security that tesco needs, which maintains the high level of safety in tesco. Manager: he is the manager for the it requirements for tesco which include advising of the central reprographic section in tesco. Finance Another functional area in Tesco is finance. The finance keeps track of all the money going in and out of the Tesco. Financial department can notify how much stock tesco sells, how much tesco spend on their stock, employees and other general expenses. This department sets budgets for all other departments at tesco to keep their planned level of income and expenditure, they keep up with how much each department spends because finance get all the employees as well because the payment of their wages and salaries is part of that function. They get a set wage each week, which is sent in to the employee’s bank account. The purpose of the finance function is to Keep all the finance records required by Tesco (receipts and payments that have been made) Pay salaries to the staff. Pay the suppliers, Providing up-to date financial information for the managers about the business performance. The activities of the finance department Preparing accounts Obtaining money Paying salaries Job roles in finance department Financial manager: Financial manager manage the finance function and staff. Credit controller: Credit controller ensures that money owing to Tesco is kept with in agreed level. Chief accountant: is responsible for preparation of Tescos accounts. Financial director: He gives advice to Tesco senior managers on financial matters about game. They oversee Tesco’s budget and are in charge of all financial fuctios in tesco. Marketing Department The job of the marketing department in tesco is to sell the finished products to the customers. If the marketing department fails the whole company fails. The department identifies the consumer’s requirements and supply their needs. This involves a lot of market research and finding out what the customer’s requirements are. Tesco use many types of initiatives to encourage customers to shop with them. For a example Tesco offers club cards that gives the customers points which are exchange in to money off in their next shopping trip, tesco offers internet shopping so that it is easier and quicker for the customers to do their shopping. Tesco carry out many activates to find out about customers such as Internet questionnaires, which is based on the net. (Or can be on the store). They do this to find out what customers needs and try to cater them, by doing this they increase customers and profit. This department is responsible for the advertising, promotion and selling of goods. They are therefore likely to take advantage of using the Internet for research purposes, sending out letters and questionnaires to assess the needs of customers and using the telephone as a means of telesales. Job roles in Marketing Department Marketing director: responsible for the overall marketing function and its aims and objectives. Sales director: responsible for the sales function. Sales manager: responsible for sales staff and the achievement of sales targets. Export manager: responsible for overseas agents. Order clerks: accept and process sales orders. Marketing director: he is in charge of the whole marketing department. Advertising manager: he is in charge of advertising and meeting with agencies over publicity. Communication between departments of Tesco Written forms include: Letters – Formal and slow. Normally used for formal communication, which do not require a quick response. Usually addressed to an individual. Memos – Formal/Informal and Slow. Used to address a wider audience. E-mail – Formal/Informal and Fast. Used for quick response, group or individual. Verbal forms include: Telephone – Formal/Informal Used to discuss issues with a specific person for a quick response. Interviews – Formal/Informal Used to speak to a specific person, usually regarding a specific issue. Meetings – Formal/Informal Employed to discuss specific issues, for an audience of up to 8 people. Presentations – Formal Used to cover issues that concern a large proportion of the employees. In addition to these there are things like internal invoices, requisition orders, posters, notices, group discussion events, etc. Tesco can use these form of communication in many ways for a example if the administration department organise a meeting but ends up they can’t make it they they can telephone the heads of all the departments and tell them that the meetings been cancelled. There are many ways to communicate but the two main ones are oral and written. These include memos. Letters mobile phones and verbal and all of these, have there advantages and disadvantages. For intense E-mails have their advantages and disadvantages mails are resaved quickly they can be send to more then one person at a time, they can be kept for long time and it’s a very cheap way to communicate. Their disadvantages are that they can take long time to type up and people can misspell words and it’s is very uninsured. Telephones are an example of oral communication it’s too as its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages is it’s very fast and an easy way to communicate. Phones can be used to talk to any one in the world in seconds. The disadvantages are it can be expensive to call people out side the country. (UK). If the telephones are disconnected your calls won’t get through and it’s impersonal so contracts can’t be made this way. The person in the other side may not be the person you won’t to speak to so Tesco’s employees can give out important information a way. This form of communication can be useful to get in contact with external contacts because they telephone them and pass what ever information they need quickly and cheaply. Notice boards can be used to display information to large amount of people. People can get all the information they need from the message boards. This form of communication even be use to get a message across to external contacts. This forum of communication is used in tesco for an example if the financial department wants all the employees of the departments to know a particular detail such as if a sudden day off was planned. By putting this information on a notice board the employees can easily read it and find out what they have to do. Memos are quick to write down, cheap and easy to use. They are not secure because any one can read them. They can be used in game if one department has a not so important message to give to another because they can take some time to get where they need to go. This form of communication may be used if someone wants a message to be short and if they don’t need it going somewhere urgently e.g. office equipment needed. This would be sent to admin who would then order the needed equipment. Examples of communication betweens departments The marketing department will contact the finance department by faxing them a letter saying that they need finical backup to advertise a new product. Another example of this form of communication being used in Tesco is if the finance department wants to send to admin a load of invoices. This form of communication would be used if a document needed to be sent because a telephone would be useless because the recipient can not read the document over the phone. . . How Tescos customer services help achieve the companies aims Tesco reduce they prices very often. They all ways keep customers up to date by handing out leaflets and advertisements on TV. Good customer service means happy customers. If the tesco keeps they are customers happy they get more customers. The employees serve good customer service so the customers come back to the shop at Tesco’s again and again. Organisational structure of Tesco Tesco’s Matrix structure Matrix structure The advantage of Matrix structure is that information and ideas flow very quickly between the departments. So the product can be released before other companies. They take specialists from the hierarchical structure to form the Matrix structure. So they can release new products before other companies. After they released the products they go back and do their normal jobs in the hierarchical structure. All the specialists in the Matrix structure are equal and have an equal say in the product that is going to be released. Tesco use this kind of Matrix structure because the old Hierarchical structure was not the best structure for tesco because they are such a large company. Also the other companies where releasing their products before tesco so that’s why they had to replace their structure. Hierarchical Organisational Structure Tesco’s Hierarchical Structure Above is a hierarchical organizational structure for Tesco. It’s shows how the business works and who works for who. For an example Accounts Clark work for Administration Manager and Computer Programmer work for Technical Manager. The disadvantages of the Tesco’s Hierarchical Structure is that massagers take a long time to flow down to the shops floor and some times the massagers can get mixed up. Another destadvantage of the Hierarchical Structure is that a company can release the product before Tesco release it. This is because it takes time for the idea of the product to flow downs the Hierarchical Structure. The advantage of the Hierarchical Structure is that it’s shows the line of power.

Historical Development in the Field of Toxicology

Historical Development in the Field of Toxicology And Mechanisms and Factors Responsible for the Entrance of Toxicants in the Human body and their Harmful Effects Jorge D. Rebolledo Columbia Southern University Abstract The purpose of this paper is to make a short historical reference in the field of Toxicology and how this area of science has develop starting from centuries ago until our present. It is also the intention of this paper to explain how the toxics enter our body, how they are absorbed and the mechanisms responsible for that. Introduction As stated by E. Monosson, some define Toxicology as the study of toxic materials, including the clinical, industrial, economic, and legal problems associated with them. Although toxicology—as a formally recognized scientific discipline—is relatively new (with major developments in the mid-1900s), the science itself is thousands of years old. Consider the potential results of early trial and error experiences of hunter-gatherers for whom identifying a toxic plant or animal was a life or death situation. Some of the most poisonous substances known today are naturally produced chemicals including ricin from castor beans or tetrodotoxin from the puffer fish. Early humankinds’ careful observations of such plants or animals with toxic characteristics as frogs, containing curare, were put to use not only for avoidance of toxic substances but for weaponry as well. Many naturally-derived poisons were likely used for hunting, as medicinal (the Egyptians were aware of many such toxic substances as lead, opium and hemlock as early as 1500 BCE). Use extended eventually to political poisonings as practiced, for example, by the early Greeks and Romans. With time, poisons became widely used and with great sophistication. Notable poisoning victims include Socrates, Cleopatra, and Claudius. One of the more interesting stories resulting from a combination of both ancient history and current toxicological research, is the story of King Mithridates, king of Pontus (120-63 BC) who according to toxicology legend was so afraid that he might be a casualty of political poisoning, is said to have concocted a potion from a great number of herbs for his own consumption. It is believed he understood that by consuming small amounts of potential poisons, he might protect himself from any would-be poisoner. That is, he believed in the effectiveness of hormesis. Apparently, his plans worked so well that he gained a name for himself as one so mighty he could not be killed. Unfortunately, it is said that when circumstances were such that he desired to kill himself, he was unable to do so by ingesting poison and had to be run through by a sword instead. Whether or not the story is true, it has led current day scientists to speculate upon the ingredients of his potion. It is believed that some herbs that he may have used, for example, St. Johns Wort could truly have contributed to detoxification of some other poisons. Recent studies have demonstrated that St. Johns Wort (often used as an herbal remedy) can increase the metabolism or breakdown of certain drugs and chemicals. This early story of toxicology relates a very important concept—that all animals have some kind of intrinsic ability for detoxifying a number of naturally-occurring toxicants in small doses (so that, in some cases low doses of chemicals may pass through the body without causing harm. From this we derive the concept of a chemical threshold), and that these processes can be altered by exposure to other chemicals. The question remains as to how adept animals, including humans, are at detoxifying many of the newer industrial chemicals or mixtures of industrial or industrial and natural chemicals. Additionally, it is well known that in some cases, detoxification of chemicals can produce even more toxic compounds. Pre-Industrial Toxicology As declared by E. Monosson, as humans sought to better understand natural compounds that were both beneficial and harmful to them, there was very little if any clear understanding of the fundamental chemical nature of substances. That is, there was no connection between the ‘extract’ and ‘essence’ of a poisonous plant or animal and any one particular chemical that might cause toxicity. In fact, an awareness of chemistry in its modern form did not occur until around the mid to late 1600s. Paracelsus, a physician from the sixteenth century and one of the early â€Å"Fathers of Toxicology† believed that all matter was composed of three â€Å"primary bodies† (sulfur, salt, and mercury). Yet, Paracelsus also coined the now famous maxim of the newly emerging discipline of toxicology: â€Å"All substances are poisons, there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison from a remedy. † (Paracelsus, 1493-1541) This phrase and Paracelsus’ name are committed to memory by hundreds of new toxicology students each year and has become the ‘motto’ of toxicology. Interestingly, if one takes Paracelsus at face value, it appears that in this quote he was referring to substances which served as potential remedies but could be poisonous if taken in high enough concentrations. Most of us are aware of the fact that overdosing can turn remedies to poisons, even with such apparently innocuous drugs as aspirin and Tylenol. Another branch on the toxicology family tree that developed in the sixteenth century, along with the study of drugs and the use of chemicals in hunting and warfare, was occupational toxicology. As humans learned how to remove and exploit such materials as coal, and metals and other minerals, occupational exposures to these chemical substances (and chemicals produced incidentally) resulted. Scientists eventually recognized the linkages among illnesses and exposures to these compounds. Some of the first reports of occupational illness, or diseases caused by activities related to specific occupations, can be found in literature from the mid- to late-1500s. Early occupational observations include the ill effects from lead mining and madness caused by mercury exposure (for example, the saying â€Å"mad as a hatter† was attributed to the common use of mercury in the hat felting process). Later, in the 1700s, Bernardino Ramazzini is credited with bringing to light diseases of tradesmen, including silicosis in stone workers and lead poisoning. In the late 1700s, Sir Percival Potts made one of the more famous observations in toxicology, linking an occupational exposure (in this case soot in chimney sweeps) to cancer of the scrotum. At this point we have discussed the pre-Industrial Revolution developments in toxicology, that were primarily devoted to the study of such naturally-occurring toxicants as the polyaromatic compounds contained in soot and heavy metals, and such toxins as botulinum toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Toxicology and the Chemical and Industrial Revolution The chemical/Industrial Revolution of the mid-19th century released many naturally-occurring chemicals into the environment in unprecedented amounts. Also, it produced and released new substances unlike any that had existed in the natural world. With the production and use of these chemicals, and the need to protect humans from the toxic effects of industrial chemicals, toxicology eventually evolved to include its modern day branches: pharmacology, pesticide toxicology, general toxicology, and occupational toxicology. Towards the mid-late 20th century, environmental toxicology was developed to specifically address the effects on both humans and wildlife of chemicals released into the environment. A notable difference among the branches of toxicology is that pharmacology, pesticides and even occupational toxicology primarily have focused on the effects of relatively high concentrations of single chemicals. This compares to the relatively low concentrations of several different chemicals or chemical mixtures that are relevant to environmental toxicology. The chemicals considered by the earlier branches of toxicology were, and are, a known quantity. That is, the research was designed to address questions about specific, well-characterized chemicals, exposure conditions, and even concentration ranges rather than complex chemical mixtures. For example, pharmacologists might work with a particular active ingredient (e. g. , salicylic acid or aspirin), and be confident about the route of exposure (oral) and the concentration or dose. This is seldom the case in environmental toxicology, and hazardous waste assessment and cleanup in particular, where chemicals often are present in mixtures, routes of exposure may vary (for example, from oral to dermal to inhalation). Significantly, exposure concentrations prove difficult to determine. Mechanisms and Factors Responsible for the Entrance of Toxicants in the Human body and their Harmful Effects Absorption of toxicants Absorption is the process whereby toxicants gain entrance to the body. Ingested and inhaled materials, nonetheless, are considered outside the body until they cross the cellular barriers of the gastrointestinal tract or the respiratory system. To exert an effect on internal organs a toxicant must be absorbed, although such local toxicity as irritation, may occur. Absorption varies greatly with specific chemicals and with the route of exposure. For skin, oral or respiratory exposure, the exposure dose (or, â€Å"outside† dose) is usually only a fraction of the absorbed dose (that is, the internal dose). For substances injected or implanted directly into the body, exposure dose is the same as the absorbed or internal dose. Several factors affect the likelihood that a foreign chemical or, xenobiotic, will be absorbed. According to E. Monosson, the most important are: †¢ Route of exposure Concentration of the substance at the site of contact †¢ Chemical and physical properties of the substance The relative roles of concentration and properties of the substance vary with the route of exposure. In some cases, a high percentage of a substance may not be absorbed from one route whereas a low amount may be absorbed via another route. For example, very little DDT powder will penetrate the skin whereas a high percentage will be absorbed when it is swallowed. Due to such route-specific differences in absorption, xenobiotics are often ranked for hazard in accordance with the route of exposure. A substance may be categorized as relatively non-toxic by one route and highly toxic via another route. The primary routes of exposure by which xenobiotics can gain entry into the body are: †¢ Gastrointestinal tract: Key in environmental exposure to food and water contaminants and is the most important route for many pharmaceuticals. †¢ Respiratory tract: Key in environmental and occupational exposure to aerial toxicants and some drugs that use this route (i. e. : inhalers). †¢ Skin: Also an environmental and occupational exposure route. A lot of medicines are applied to the skin directly. Other routes of exposure—used primarily for specific medical purposes—are: †¢ Injections (IV, Subcutaneous, Intradermal, Intrathecal) basically used for medications. †¢ Implants (Hormone patches) †¢ Conjunctival instillations (Eye drops) †¢ Suppositories For a toxic to enter the body (as well as move within, and leave the body) it must pass across cell membranes (cell walls). Cell membranes are formidable barriers and major body defenses that prevent foreign invaders or substances from gaining entry into body tissues. Normally, cells in solid tissues (for example, skin or mucous membranes of the lung or intestine) are so tightly compacted that substances cannot pass between them. Entry, therefore, requires that the xenobiotic have some capability to penetrate cell membranes. Also, the substance must cross several membranes in order to go from one area of the body to another. In essence, for a substance to move through one cell requires that it first move across the cell membrane into the cell, pass across the cell, and then cross the cell membrane again in order to leave the cell. This is true whether the cells are in the skin, the lining of a blood vessel, or an internal organ (for example, the liver). In many cases, in order for a substance to reach its site of toxic action, it must pass through several membrane barriers. Cell membranes surround all body cells and are basically similar in structure. They consist of two layers of phospholipid molecules arranged like a â€Å"sandwich† and also known as â€Å"phospholipid bilayer†. Each phospholipid molecule consists of a phosphate head and a lipid tail. The phosphate head is polar so it is hydrophilic (attracted to water). In contrast, the lipid tail is lipophilic (attracted to lipid-soluble substances). The two phospholipid layers are oriented on opposing sides of the membrane so that they are approximate mirror images of each other. The polar heads face outward and the lipid tails inward. The cell membrane is tightly packed with these phospholipid molecules—interspersed with various proteins and cholesterol molecules. Some proteins span across the entire membrane providing for the formation of aqueous channels or pores. Some toxicants move across a membrane barrier with relative ease while others find it difficult or impossible. Those that can cross the membrane, do so by one of two general methods: either passive transfer or facilitated transport. Passive transfer consists of simple diffusion (or osmotic filtration) and is â€Å"passive† in that there is no requirement for cellular energy or assistance. Some toxicants cannot simply diffuse across the membrane. They require assistance that is facilitated by specialized transport mechanisms. The primary types of specialized transport mechanisms are: †¢ Facilitated diffusion †¢ Active transport †¢ Endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis). Passive transfer is the most common way that xenobiotics cross cell membranes. Two factors determine the rate of passive transfer: †¢ Differences in concentrations of the substance on opposite sides of the membrane (substance moves from a region of high concentration to one having a lower concentration. Diffusion will continue until the concentration is equal on both sides of the membrane); and †¢ Ability of the substance to move either through the small pores in the membrane or through the lipophilic interior of the membrane. Properties of the chemical substance that affect its ability for passive transfer are: †¢ Lipid solubility Molecular size †¢ Degree of ionization (that is, the electrical charge of an atom) Substances with high lipid solubility readily diffuse through the phospholipid membrane. Small water-soluble molecules can pass across a membrane through the aqueous pores, along with normal intracellular water flow. Large water-soluble molecules usually cannot make it through the small pores, although some may diffuse through the l ipid portion of the membrane, but at a slow rate. In general, highly ionized chemicals have low lipid solubility and pass with difficulty through the lipid membrane. Most aqueous pores are about 4 angstrom (A) in size and allow chemicals of molecular weight 100-200 to pass through. Exceptions are membranes of capillaries and kidney glomeruli that have relatively large pores (about 40A) that allow molecules up to a molecular weight of about 50,000 (molecules slightly smaller than albumen which has a molecular weight of 60,000) to pass through. Facilitated diffusion is similar to simple diffusion in that it does not require energy and follows a concentration gradient. The difference is that it is a carrier-mediated transport mechanism. The results are similar to passive transport but faster and capable of moving larger molecules that have difficulty diffusing through the membrane without a carrier. Examples are the transport of sugar and amino acids into red blood cells (RBCs), and into the central nervous system (CNS). Some substances are unable to move with diffusion, unable to dissolve in the lipid layer, and are too large to pass through the aqueous channels. For some of these substances, active transport processes exist in which movement through the membrane may be against the concentration gradient: they move from low to higher concentrations. Cellular energy from adenosine triphosphate (ADP) is required in order to accomplish this. The transported substance can move from one side of the membrane to the other side by this energy process. Active transport is important in the transport of xenobiotics into the liver, kidney, and central nervous system and for maintenance of electrolyte and nutrient balance. Many large molecules and particles cannot enter cells via passive or active mechanisms. However, some may enter, by a process known as endocytosis. In endocytosis, the cell surrounds the substance with a section of its cell wall. This engulfed substance and section of membrane then separates from the membrane and moves into the interior of the cell. The two main forms of endocytosis are phagocytosis and pinocytosis. In phagocytosis (cell eating), large particles suspended in the extracellular fluid are engulfed and either transported into cells or are destroyed within the cell. This is a very important process for lung phagocytes and certain liver and spleen cells. Pinocytosis (cell drinking) is a similar process but involves the engulfing of liquids or very small particles that are in suspension within the extracellular fluid. Gastrointestinal Tract The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, the major portion of the alimentary canal) can be viewed as a tube going through the body. Its contents are considered exterior to the body until absorbed. Salivary glands, the liver, and the pancreas are considered accessory glands of the GI tract as they have ducts entering the GI tract and secrete enzymes and other substances. For foreign substances to enter the body, they must pass through the gastrointestinal mucosa, crossing several membranes before entering the blood stream. Substances must be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract in order to exert a systemic toxic effect, although local gastrointestinal damage may occur. Absorption can occur at any place along the entire gastrointestinal tract. However, the degree of absorption is strongly site dependent. Three main factors affect absorption within the various sites of the gastrointestinal tract: †¢ Type of cells at the specific site †¢ Period of time that the substance remains at the site †¢ pH of stomach or intestinal contents at the site. Under normal conditions, xenobiotics are poorly absorbed within the mouth and esophagus, due mainly to the very short time that a substance resides within these portions of the gastrointestinal tract. There are some notable exceptions. For example, nicotine readily penetrates the mouth mucosa. Also, nitroglycerin is placed under the tongue (sublingual) for immediate absorption and treatment of heart conditions. The sublingual mucosa under the tongue and in some other areas of the mouth is thin and highly vascularized so that some substances will be rapidly absorbed. The stomach, having high acidity (pH 1-3), is a significant site for absorption of weak organic acids, which exist in a diffusible, nonionized and lipid-soluble form. In contrast, weak bases will be highly ionized and therefore are absorbed poorly. Chemically, the acidic stomach may break down some substances. For this reason those substances must be administered in gelatin capsules or coated tablets, that can pass through the acidic stomach into the intestine before they dissolve and release their contents. Another determinant that affects the amount of a substance that will be absorbed in the stomach is the presence of food. Food ingested at the same time as the xenobiotic may result in a considerable difference in absorption of the xenobiotic. For example, the LD50 for Dimethline (a respiratory stimulant) in rats is 30 mg/kg (or 30 parts per million) when ingested along with food, but only 12 mg/kg when it is administered to fasting rats. The greatest absorption of chemicals, as with nutrients, takes place in the intestine, particularly in the small intestine (see Figure 9). The intestine has a large surface area consisting of outward projections of the thin (one-cell thick) mucosa into the lumen of the intestine (the villi). This large surface area facilitates diffusion of substances across the cell membranes of the intestinal mucosa. Since the intestinal pH is near neutral (pH 5-8), both weak bases and weak acids are nonionized and are usually readily absorbed by passive diffusion. Lipid soluble, small molecules effectively enter the body from the intestine by passive diffusion. In addition to passive diffusion, facilitated and active transport mechanisms exist to move certain substances across the intestinal cells into the body, including such essential nutrients as glucose, amino acids and calcium. Also, strong acids, strong bases, large molecules, and metals (and some important toxins) are transported by these mechanisms. For example, lead, thallium, and paraquat (herbicide) are toxicants that are transported across the intestinal wall by active transport systems. The high degree of absorption of ingested xenobiotics is also due to the slow movement of substances through the intestinal tract. This slow passage increases the length of time that a compound is available for absorption at the intestinal membrane barrier. Intestinal microflora and gastrointestinal enzymes can affect the toxicity of ingested substances. Some ingested substances may be only poorly absorbed but they may be biotransformed within the gastrointestinal tract. In some cases, their biotransformed products may be absorbed and be more toxic than the ingested substance. An important example is the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines from non-carcinogenic amines by intestinal flora. Very little absorption takes place in the colon and rectum. As a general rule, if a xenobiotic has not been absorbed after passing through the stomach or small intestine, very little further absorption will occur. However, there are some exceptions, as some medicines may be administered as rectal suppositories with significant absorption. An example, is Anusol (hydrocortisone preparation) used for treatment of local inflammation which is partially absorbed (about 25%). Respiratory Tract Many environmental and occupational agents as well as some pharmaceuticals are inhaled and enter the respiratory tract. Absorption can occur at any place within the upper respiratory tract. However, the amount of a particular xenobiotic that can be absorbed at a specific location is highly dependent upon its physical form and solubility. There are three basic regions to the respiratory tract: †¢ Nasopharyngeal region †¢ Tracheobronchial region †¢ Pulmonary region By far the most important site for absorption is the pulmonary region consisting of the very small airways (bronchioles) and the alveolar sacs of the lung. The alveolar region has a very large surface area (about 50 times that of the skin). In addition, the alveoli consist of only a single layer of cells with very thin membranes that separate the inhaled air from the blood stream. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases pass readily through this membrane. In contrast to absorption via the gastrointestinal tract or through the skin, gases and particles, which are water-soluble (and thus blood soluble), will be absorbed more efficiently from the lung alveoli. Water-soluble gases and liquid aerosols can pass through the alveolar cell membrane by simple passive diffusion. In addition to solubility, the ability to be absorbed is highly dependent on the physical form of the agent (that is, whether the agent is a gas/vapor or a particle). The physical form determines penetration into the deep lung. A gas or vapor can be inhaled deep into the lung and if it has high solubility in the blood, it is almost completely absorbed in one respiration. Absorption through the alveolar membrane is by passive diffusion, following the concentration gradient. As the agent dissolves in the circulating blood, it is taken away so that the amount that is absorbed and enters the body may be quite large. The only way to increase the amount absorbed is to increase the rate and depth of breathing. This is known as ventilation-limitation. For blood-soluble gases, equilibrium between the concentration of the agent in the inhaled air and that in the blood is difficult to achieve. Inhaled gases or vapors, which have poor solubility in the blood, have quite limited capacity for absorption. The reason for this is that the blood can become quickly saturated. Once saturated, blood will not be able to accept the gas and it will remain in the inhaled air and then exhaled. The only way to increase absorption would be to increase the rate of blood supply to the lung. This is known as flow-limitation. Equilibrium between blood and the air is reached more quickly for relatively insoluble gases than for soluble gases. The absorption of airborne particles is usually quite different from that of gases or vapors. The absorption of solid particles, regardless of solubility, is dependent upon particle size. Large particles (>5  µM) are generally deposited in the nasopharyngeal region ((head airways region) with little absorption. Particles 2-5  µM can penetrate into the tracheobronchial region. Very small particles (

Elijah Heart Center

I will discuss the best options for the healthcare center; this will include evaluating funding options for capital expansion, what the best option would be when it comes to upgrading the hospitals equipment, and how bridging a working capital shortage will help to turn financial matters around. Phase l: Capital Shortages In 1998 – 1999 New York, the hospitals lost on an average $678 million due to Medicare cuts that were imposed by the Balanced Budget of 1997.It was difficult for managed care organizations to receive the full payments on managed care plans. I am assisting EACH in the best way possible to reach $750,000 for the first quarter. The simulation offered two options to choose from in order to receive the best loan to cover the remaining shortfall for Elijah Heart Center (EACH). I chose Loan option 1, it seemed to make more sense, and according to the simulation option 1 was the best to choose from to solve the working capital shortfall at EACH. In 3 months EACH will be receiving from Medicare and Managed Care Organizations to assist in loving the cash flow issue.EACH will have to pay a higher rate interest at 9. 45% but there is no repayment limitation. Loan option 2 had to be prepaid within six months (impossible without going further in debt). I also suggested that reducing a great amount of agency contracted staff would be beneficial for Elijah Heart Center as well, because the contracted workers receive much higher wages than those of the staff. The full – time staff at the care center has been there a long time and have established a patient worker relationship, the staff truly care for the patients whereas, the agency come and go.When this is implemented there will be a huge change in the â€Å"Revenue and Expenditure Projections†, and all will notice this is the most effective measure in reducing cost. I also chose changing the skill mix (first time I had heard of this), this will increase the â€Å"Revenue and Expenditur e projections† in the beginning and the future months. It is a good decision to hire unlicensed assisted personnel; they may have 40 or less hospital training but they can help out by doing such work as the Stanza's (feed, bathe, and dress the patient), and theRegistered Nurses can focus fully on his or her Job duties and the patient will receive appropriate care. By making these decisions EACH will not only save $811,249 but they would have exceeded their goal by the first quarter. The capital shortfall issue has been solved for EACH and it also is increasing. Phase II: Funding Options for Equipment Acquisition CEO Gilbert Sanchez is interested in acquiring hospital equipment such as a High- Speed CT Scanner, X-Ray Machine, and a new Ultrasound System. Mr.. Sanchez wants the best for the patients as well as the staff; having updated equipment will reduce tress, and patient wait times.The most cost effective equipment acquisition strategy would be to purchase wisely, meaning g et the best for your dollar. I liked the idea of buying refurbished medical equipment. The best option would be to purchase a refurbished High-Speed CT Scanner, do operating lease on the Ultrasound, and a capital lease on the X-Ray Machine. The High-Speed CT Scanner seems to be the smartest buy because it is the cheapest of the three, and the life span is approximately 10 years, and it is medium technology that can become obsolescent in years, it is already 5 years old, this equipment can be upgraded.Elijah Heart Center also wants to keep up with the latest technology, and in doing the Ultrasound System would be the best option for this reason, but we would need to acquire an operating lease for the low upfront payments and low monthly payments. It does cost more to keep up with the Joneses. Phase Ill: Funding Options for Capital Expansion HAD 242 Loan Insurance Program is the best choice for the expansion of She's project; this program provides mortgage insurance for hospitals. Acc ording to RuralAssistance Center (2002 – 2014), â€Å"The maximum term on the loan is 25 years, loan to value may not exceed 90%, a one-time fee of 0. 8%, the fixed annual premium is 0. 5% of the remaining balance and the FAA insures 99% of the loan amount† (HAD Section 242: Hospital Mortgage Insurance Program). This insurance can be used for remodeling, construction, refinancing, equipment and what EACH needs expansion. Hospitals are able to finance as an investment grade, and the hospital will get the lowest rate possible when it comes to borrowing funds in capital markets.The rejects Net Present Value (NP) is $221 million thru this program. In 8 years the hospital can buy back the bonds if interest rates were to decrease. In conclusion, I learned that when making money matter decisions it is best to look at all every option possible; what may seem like a good option at the time may not be good for me in the long run. Elijah Heart Center will have a promising future as long as they follow the options and strategies given. References Rural Assistance Center. (2002 – 2014). Rural Assistance Center. Retrieved from http:// www. Reconcile. Org/funding/95.

A Reflection on the Qur'an, Heritage and Education Essay

A Reflection on the Qur'an, Heritage and Education - Essay Example This essay reflects on his ideas on the subjects of the Qur’an, laws, and education. It agrees with the foundations that the Qur’an laid for a comprehensive viewpoint on lawmaking and legal interpretation, as well as on a modern educational system that balances religious and rational sciences. The Qur’an is the foundation of Islam, which supports it as a way of life. The Qur’an is different from other religious texts, because it focuses on the moral development of humanity in a tangible and communal way (Rahman 2). It is different from Buddhist and Taoist texts that tend to be metaphysical or individualist in orientation. The Holy Bible of Christianity also attempts to morally guide Christians as individuals and as a community, but it does not attempt to affect the legal and political dimensions of human living. The Qur’an, on the other hand, is a blueprint not only for individual living, but how individuals should live together. It is a practical a nd moral guide for numerous issues, including peace, war, and various other public and private affairs (Rahman 2). This paper believes then that the basis of saying that Islam is a way of living is because the Qur’an provides for the direction of that way of living. In Christian societies, the Church and the law are separate, and so are the Church and legislative and executive functions of society. Muslim jurists, on the contrary, use the Qur’an to find answers to both historical and present-day legal questions and cases (Rahman 2). The idea is that God lives through the words of the Qur’an and to follow it completely entails that Muslims should believe in and depend on the Qur’an completely. This way, they truly fully surrender to Allah through living the Qur’an in every aspect of their existence. This essay agrees with Rahman that one of the main problems with present Islamic jurisprudence is the failure of jurists to have a unified reading of th e Qur’an, which leads to an atomistic and insufficient understanding of the verses and the entire Qur’an itself. Rahman criticizes the deductive reasoning used on the Qur’an, such as using qiyas, or analogical reasoning, because it reduces it to its parts, instead of using the parts to appreciate it as a whole (Rahman 2). Like Rahman, this essay believes that to properly read the Qur’an, people must go beyond literally reading the verses, and instead, they must read it in relation to the whole of the text too. In other words, the process starts from the specific and then goes to the general goals and values of the text. Rahman is concerned that by diving the text into verses, they will have unintended legal and religious interpretations (Rahman 2-3). In order to properly read the Qur’an, this paper believes too that the thought systems must come from it, and not from external sources, like what the Sufis did (Rahman 3). This way, fundamental ideas and thought structures will be derived from the Qur’an itself and not from the outside, which are forced on the Qur’an instead (Rahman 3). Rahman calls his process as a new hermeneutical method that highlights the cognitive aspect of the Qur’an (4). It consists of studying the Qur’an using its text, instead of relying on external resources to make sense of it. For me, it means that interpreting the Qur’an does not require outside sources, but an analysis of what the text means in its parts and then as a whole. The idea is to go inside the

The Impact of Technology on Society Research Paper - 2

The Impact of Technology on Society - Research Paper Example This essay will look at its impacts as regards health, welfare and the environment. In the backdrop of these results, it will offer suggestions on how engineering should be practiced.As the discussion declares  the late 19th century and early 20th century saw one of the greatest inventions known to man: the automobile. The automobile refers to a wheel mode of transportation that autonomously moves on its own from the combustion of fuel. The following article examines the society before this invention in comparison to the state of the society in the period after and its impacts on health and environment.   Automobile production boosted the economy, enhanced political cohesion and facilitated the establishment of a strong political hold by countries over their countries. In health and welfare, it has facilitated faster access to health services and access to social provisions such as education and employment. The building of roads has resulted in a change in the environmental lands cape, acting as a factor for urbanisation and industrialisation. However, the invention has led to an increase in pollution levels that has had health as well as environmental implications.  The automobile came after a series of inventions done by scientists in most of the 19th and the 20th century. It works by a system of an internal combustion engine that propels its wheel to move on the road.  The term automobile was coined in the 19the century describing its self-driving capability.

Ethical Dilemma -- Super Bowl XLV Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ethical Dilemma -- Super Bowl XLV - Essay Example utility is the first moral philosophy principle in that it states that each human being is morally obligated to seek to promote the inherent happiness of the greatest group of people. The utility principle also holds that all human beings are influenced by an interest in avoiding pain and securing pleasure. In Roger Rosenblatt’s essay â€Å"The Man in the Water†, the focus is not on the disaster itself, but on a single individual’s actions in choosing to come to the rescue of fellow crash survivors in the midst of frozen chunks crash debris and ice in the Potomac. The last statements of the essay state, â€Å"He could not freeze water or create ice storms†¦but, he could hand his life over to a complete stranger; and this too is a power of nature. The man in the water battled against an impersonal and implacable enemy and was successful in holding it to a standoff. He is the best that humanity can do† (Rosenblatt). In sacrificing his life for the benef it of others, the man in the water was the personalization of the views held by the utility theory. 3. First, what does it mean to say that the principle of utility is an absolute moral principle? Second, are there any absolute truths? Third, how do the Old Man Snodgrass and Maiden Aunt cases make it difficult to defend those claims about the principle? Fourth, how does Rawls defend utilitarianism from these difficulties in Two Concepts of Rules? The utility principle holds that human behaviors or even actions can be viewed as being right as long as they seek to promote pleasure for others or general happiness. Moral absolutism perceives all actions as being either immoral or moral. This rigid definition is somewhat similar to that of the utility principle. There are no absolute truths. The ‘Old Man Snodgrass’ and ‘Maiden Aunt’ cases make it hard to accept the claims of the principle of utility. In regards to ‘Old Man Snodgrass’, the power of the village collective is aimed against the weakest and

Policy Memo - Human Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Policy Memo - Human Rights - Essay Example In addition, there is the reality of todays global terrorism where time sensitive information may be able to save thousands of lives. Torture falls under the umbrella of human rights that have had staunch philosophical support from the US government since its inception. The problem that faces the US is being able to stay true to the principles and ideals that the US stands for, while confronting an enemy that does not have the same level of respect for life, dignity, and human rights that the US does. Only by eliminating the use of torture and maintaining our credibility on the world stage, will the US be able to further its agenda of spreading democracy and protecting human rights around the world. Torture dates back to the days of antiquity and has been used regularly in wars to gain information from the enemy. Torture was used in ancient Mesopotamia, the Romans tortured Christ, and Aristotle advocated it as an effective means to extract information (Masci). Since the earliest recorded times torture has been used by churches, militaries, and law enforcement in an effort to get a confession. By the 18th century, enlightened thinking began to question the ethics of torture and humanitarian advocates called for the elimination of torture as a means to get a confession (Masci). Modern views on torture are generally the result of the foundations laid by the American Red Cross and the Geneva Conferences in 1863 and 1864 (Masci). While there has been a movement to reduce torture in the recent centuries, and its practice made more palatable, it still proliferates in many of the civilized countries around the world. Today, law enforcement, intelligence organizations, militaries, and governments in over 100 countries including the United States use torture (Masci). Its use has been banned by international common law, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Geneva Convention

Gun Control Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gun Control - Research Paper Example It may be argued that gun control regulations are not necessary because only law abiding citizens will follow rules and remain unarmed while law breakers and criminals will continue to own and use guns through illegal sources for offensive purposes like robbery and murder. Supporters of individual rights to own gun for protection believe that increase in private use and ownership of gun for self-protection is an effective method to control homicide and gun violence because legal restrictions will be followed only by law abiding Americans and they would fall prey to law breakers (White p.2). A national survey by John R. Lott reveal that 98 percent of the time individuals have used guns defensively to break off an attack. The positive results of gun use for defense such as carjacking being thwarted, prevention of robberies at automatic teller machines and the prevention of a number of robberies at stores and streets do not receive national coverage and the news covered by media include only encounters that culminate in a fatality (Lott (a) p.3). The data from the Department of Justice’s National Crime Victimization Survey from 1979 to 1987 reveals that the probability of grave injury from an attack is two and half times greater for women with no resistance without a gun than when a women resist an attack using a gun. Further, the probability of serious injury is four times greater for women resisting without a gun than while resisting with a gun. Therefore, the best solution is to resist an attack with a gun and to remain passive without a gun. Men are also better secure with guns though the advantage is significantly lower. Passive behavior is 1.4 times more probable to lead to serious injury when compared to resistance with gun. Male victims, similar to females are at greater risk while resisting without a gun and the difference in the level of injury is lower (Lott (a) p.4). Social scientists have arrived at solutions to some of the arguments about gun

What sorts of ethical problems are posed by the fact of cultural Essay

What sorts of ethical problems are posed by the fact of cultural pluralism and how might the ethicist (that's you) respond to them - Essay Example This also raises the issue of cultural pluralism, moral absolution and ethical relativism which need to be understood from the wider perspective of pluralistic society and the ethical challenges that are posed. Cultural pluralism broadly defines the social structure that is distinct in its diversity vis-Ã  -vis culture, race and color. The cultural differentiation in the fast transforming political system has become a reality, As such, the autonomy of individuals irrespective of their color, race and culture is not only desirable but must be incorporated within the socio-cultural and legal paradigm of the region. Equal rights and freedom to speech and actions become essential components of societal norms. The states must therefore promote these values for peaceful co-existence. Philosophers have myriad views on the topic. Rawls (1993) believes that state must not intervene in personal choices of individual regarding their religion, culture etc. The actions of individuals must be rational such that they do not have adverse impact on others. But this may also produce ethical dilemma between moral absolution and ethic relativism. Moral absolutism supports normative ethics and believes that actions are either right or wrong. Kantian utilitarian theory (Schneewind, 1990) emphasizes moral obligations and asserts that actions that result in the good of maximum number of people are correct. This does not give way to doubts which in reality, is a very possible fact. It is especially true in the era of cultural diversity where moral relativism has emerged as critical aspect of one’s actions. Cultural pluralism highlights the different ideologies of various cultures that may view their actions differently as opposed to others. For example, polygamy is moral obligation in some community whereas in West, it is ethically wrong. Thus, challenge of moral relativism always exists in pluralistic culture. Ethical relativism also promotes the concept of differing views

The most powerful people Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The most powerful people - Assignment Example Time Magazine in 2009 described Bernanke as a visionary who â€Å"conjured up trillions of new dollars and blasted them into the economy; engineered massive public rescues of failing private companies; ratcheted down interest rates to zero. He didnt just reshape U.S. monetary policy; he led an effort to save the world economy† (Edroso, 2009). Trichet is known as the â€Å"Euro fighter† who defended the low inflation on the euro (Stock Market Today, 2011). The Stock Market Today states that â€Å"Trichet’s every move affects the euro zone countries† (2011). On the other hand, Shirakawa has a vital role in influencing Japan’s future economic prospects. He is also known for devising an unconventional monetary policy which was later on adopted in modified forms by the US and UK (Chung, 2011). During the recession of 2008 to 2009, banks of the world lowered their interest rates. This move was done to make borrowing cheaper and encourage businesses and consumers to borrow to spur or increase economic activity. More goods will be produced by businesses and bought by consumers. If there is a demand to produce more, then it will also create jobs which will positively affect the economy and eventually rise out of the recession. One of the reforms adopted by the Fed to improve the U.S. monetary policy is the quantitative easing whereby the government injects billions of dollars of fresh cash in the economy to pump up economic growth (Sanati, 2011). However, this policy is not proven effective as pointed out by Sanati since the economy is still not performing well as shown by the negative economic indicators, including a very low job growth (2011). Bernanke though is still convinced that quantitative easing would help the economy to recover. One is of the opinion that Bernanke is right in instituting this policy because it will result in banks having access to cheap cash which they can lend out to

Short Story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Short Story - Essay Example Sarah ran ahead, and squeezed herself in because she wanted to sit by the window. Finally after much pushing and shoving everyone piled into the van and headed off for the beach. Without hesitation they all jumped into the warm, blue water and started splashing around. At first Sarah tried to see for how long she could hold her breath underwater, but soon gave up on that. She dug her toes deeper into the sand and just sat there watching her two younger brothers and cousins wrestling with each other. They repeatedly tried to dunk one another in, but quit when their mom scolded them. Soon, getting tired of the water, Sarah waded back to shore. The sand was extremely hot beneath her feet and she hurriedly skipped her way to her towel and plopped down. Her mom smiled at her warmly and gave her a piece of cucumber to chew on while lunch was getting ready. Sarah sprawled back on the ground, lazily munching away. Squinting against the sun, she peered up at the sky, trying to make shapes out of the few wisps of clouds that slowly made their way across. The call for lunch jogged Sarah out of her sky-gazing. The rest of the kids crowded around, dripping and laughing. Sarah spread out her pita bread and smeared loads of ketchup on it. After heaping little steak pieces on the bread, she rolled it up neatly. Now it was just the way she liked it. After everyone was well fed ( none of them could take in another bite, not even her brothers who were boasting about how much they could gobble down earlier on), they all made their way to the water again. It was much cooler now. The whole gang divided up into two groups and started playing volleyball. Sarah could hardly jump out of the water to reach for the ball, but it was fun nonetheless. No one bothered to keep score, they were all too busy laughing and pushing each other down. Sarah fell in so many times that her brain seemed to be swimming in salt water. Tired and all splashed out,

Scientific Process behind Games of Chance Essay Example for Free

Scientific Process behind Games of Chance Essay The prospect of winning the price money is one of the most influential if not primary reasons why people engage in casino games. The degrees may vary, but there will always be a certain desire to win. Even the player who once failed continues to hope that luck will turn to his or her side in the following round. For some, winning gives a certain sense of achievement. There are those who are simply thrilled by the momentary joy it brings. Still, some simply want to gain money for profit. The prospect of winning usually conceals the truth behind the likelihood of success. Luck is one thing, but the possibility of winning in casino games primarily lies on its mathematics. Scientific Process behind Games of Chance Generally, people obtain a certain amount of pleasure whenever they engage in a form of recreational activity such as playing games. In any case, such recreational activity provides a chance to have fun, a test of fate, escape and diversion, and intellectual stimulus. However, the kinds of games played with the desire to win the money are the ones that are even more challenging, thrilling, and pleasurable. The desire to succeed in a game of chance or wits is supported by the desire to collect the monetary reward. In addition, although most people are motivated to engage in gambling not solely because of the most coveted prize of money but for the entertainment that games of chance can offer, money nonetheless remains to be an essential if not dominant factor. Money is a means to keep track of the score. Likewise, it is the prize for a game well played and a price to pay for a bad game (Vancura, Cornelius, Eadington, 2000). By definition, gambling is a gaming behavior that involves running the risk of valuables or money on the result of a certain game, event, or contest for that matter (Author, year). Arguably, the result of a gambling activity is completely or to some extent dependent on chance. It remains to be a controversial topic to date. There are those who take pleasure in the likelihood of winning. There are those who simply appreciate having a good time in playing the games. Still, there are those people who are not interested in any form of gambling activity for they believe that the appeal of the monetary prize will only trigger the players to develop an addiction to the game. In essence, the casino gaming business is simple. It thrives on its games due to the laws of probability. Effective marketing strategies and sound management practices may help bolster the bottom line, but in the end, the house usually wins the game. This is due to the mathematical edge the casinos have over its players. This, of course, is no secret. People have been gambling and trying to figure out the house edge for the longest time. Nonetheless, even the average gambler is at least indistinctly aware that casinos make money because of the mathematical edge provided by the games. The details, though, are a mystery to many who fail to grasp the subtleties, and sometimes the obvious, about the mathematics behind the games (Hannum, 2005). All things considered, commercial gaming, an industry that is built upon statistics and probability is a huge and thriving business enterprise Commercial Gaming and the Math If a player would want to advance his or her winning chances, he or she must initially try to rise above his or her hesitations to the degree that is possible. Afterwards, the player must then consider the consequences of his or her possible strategy. The manner of management is certainly dependent upon the real basis of the uncertainty. For instance, if a players would want to come to a decision whether he or she would engage in a game of chance, then such player must initially consider the odds to see whether or not they are appealing in contrast to the amount to be gambled (Bewersdorff Kramer, 2004). Critics of the gaming business have long blamed it that in order to sound more politically correct, they refer to their venture as a gaming rather than a gambling enterprise. Representatives of the gaming business did not coin the term, though. It has been in existence for several years already. Perhaps, the term more correctly describes the business for the reason that casino operators usually do not engage into gambling activities. Rather, they depend on the mathematics of the games to assure positive cash flow. The House Advantage The money generated from a gambling game derives from the expected value, or expectation, of the wager. This value represents the monetary value that a bettor can expect to be losing of winning sooner or later if the wager were to be made a large number of times. In principle, the expected value can be found by multiplying each possible outcome or payoff by its probability of occurring, and then summing these products. In double-zero roulette, for example, a $5 even-money bet on the color red has expected value equal to (+5)(18/38) + (-5)(20/38) = -0. 263 (Hannum, 2005). It is important to note that in a double-zero roulette, there are 18 black, 18 red, in addition to the 0 and 00 green numbers. Generally, more than $. 25 for every $5 bet on red will be lost by a player, generating a 5. 3% house edge on such bet (Hannum, 2005). For some games, the relevant probabilities for the outcomes of a wager may be difficult to derive, and it is necessary to use more sophisticated mathematics or computer simulations to estimate the game’s statistical advantage. Notwithstanding of the method applied in computation, the house advantage can be regarded as the cost to a player for engaging in the game. Everything else equal including bets for every hour as well as average bet size, a player who bets in a game with a four percent house advantage is likely to lose his or her money twice as quickly as the other player who is betting in a game with a two percent house edge (Hannum, 2005). The Winning Advantage There is wide variation in house advantages for wagers found in casino games, depending on the particular bet, the rules in effect, and, in some cases, the level of skill of the player. There are those who believe that certain casino games such as slots machines, the big wheel of fortune, keno, baccarat, crap, and roulette are games of sheer chance. They argue that in these games, no amount of strategy or skill can influence the eventual outcome of the game. They further argue that with a house advantage of less than 1% and 1. 2% taking into consideration a conservative play, the games of craps and baccarat provide the best chance of winning (Hannum, 2005). For slots, on the other hand, it would cost a player five up to ten percent on the average. For double-zero roulette, it would register at 5. 3%. In keno and the big wheel of fortune, however, the average house advantages will be about thirty and twenty percent, correspondingly (Hannum, 2005). Games wherein a certain degree of skill can influence the player’s expectation are the popular poker-based games, video poker, and blackjack. Optimal strategy will produce a house advantage between a three up to five percent, in as far as the popular poker-based games are concerned (Hannum, 2005). Statistical advantage in video poker differs from every machine. Nonetheless, in general, video poker can be quite player-friendly. Taking into consideration an expert strategy, it is not unusual to produce a house advantage of fewer than three percent for this game. There are those which fall below one percent, and occasionally a player can find a video poker game with a return greater than 100 percent. The house edge for the blackjack game differs with the number of decks used as well as with every rule applied. With typical rules, taking into consideration a player employing a basic strategy in a typical six-deck game, he or she will only play against a house advantage of 0. 5 percent. Nonetheless, the average player of a blackjack game will ultimately give about two percent advantage to the casino whenever he or she decides to deviate from such strategy (Hannum, 2005). Flaws, Myths, Faults, and Misconceptions Most casino wagers have a negative expectation. However, there are certain exceptions. A few professionals can make a living at race or sports betting or at a card room poker wherein the opposition is other players. Blackjack can be played with a positive expectation using card counting. A few video poker machines can be played with a player advantage. Moreover, the odds waged in craps have a house edge of zero even though such wage is not possible without making one more negative expectation wager. Occasionally, a casino will likewise give a promotion that offers an edge to the player. The aforementioned are the common mistakes caused by overzealous casino personnel who did not bother to check the math, and in such cases the promotions are usually terminated quickly when it becomes apparent the players have the mathematical edge. Odds Explained The term odds can mean several things. However, it is commonly used to refer to the chances of winning. For example, the odds are a million to one of hitting the jackpot. When used in this sense, many people confuse odds with probability. When a card is selected at random from a standard deck of 52 playing cards, there is a probability of 1 in 4 that the card will come out as a spade. The odds that the card will not turn out to be a spade are three to one. It is not uncommon for people to mistakenly interpret 3 to 1 odds as meaning the event will occur on average once in three tries. In the game of lottery, the odds of winning the jackpot can be derived from a mathematical calculation. In the Lotto 6/49 game, for instance, 6 digits are drawn from a pool of digits ranging from 1 up to 49. Here, the amount of possible combinations is only less than fourteen million (Smitheringale, 2003). Hence, the odds to win the jackpot on one ticket will be 1 in fourteen million. Selling more tickets will not influence the odds since it remains constant. Selling more tickets will only effect in an increase in the jackpot price as well as on the potential number of winners (Smitheringale, 2003). Each Video Lottery Terminals, otherwise known as VLTs has their own game program and processor board which works separately from all of the other Video Lottery Terminals. A random number generator is built-in every VLT. It is that which controls losses and wins. In this case, a winning outcome cannot be predicted. Moreover, there is completely no pattern or order to the emergence of the results. For slot machines and VLTs, the payback works on percentages. More wagers eventually lead to more money lost in the game (Smitheringale, 2003). On the other hand, in a roulette game, there are thirty-seven numbered slots where the roulette ball could drop on any single turn of the wheel (Smitheringale, 2003). In one bet, the real odds of selecting the right number are thirty-six to one. Conversely, the payoffs for selecting such number are thirty-five to one. The distinction between the payoff odds and the real odds generate a 2. 7 percent house advantage. This indicates that a player will eventually lose 2. 7 percent on the average of every bet he or she makes (Smitheringale, 2003). In case of the blackjack game, the house advantage can fall somewhere from one up to twenty percent (Smitheringale, 2003). It all depends on the player’s skill as well as on the set of rules applied. Those who play following a perfect strategy can lower the house advantage to one percent. Nonetheless, those players remain at a drawback and will ultimately lose money. Playing a perfect strategy means playing a in a prearranged fashion, considering the up-card of the dealer and the players’ hand. No other than the card counters which are rare, can expect to obtain quite a slim advantage or to totally even out the odds in the game. In another use of the term, the payoff for a winning wager is at times reported in terms of odds – a winning bettor who gets odds of 3 to 1 is paid three times as much as he or she bets (Hannum, 2005). The real odds correspond to the payoff that would produce a better fair. In a double-zero roulette for instance, a bet on one number has probability of 1 in 30. This means that for a player to ultimately breakeven, he or she would have to be paid 37 to 1 (Hannum, 2005). The Working behind the Games In terms of gambling, the concept of randomness denotes that every possibility on a device is consistently possible on every trial of the machine (Smitheringale, 2003). It is incorporated into gambling games to guarantee that the players cannot exactly calculate what the subsequent outcome would be like. Examples of gambling devices which generate numbers or events in random order are slot machines, VLTs, dice, cards, and roulette wheels. Generally, a random number generator is incorporated in nearly all forms of gambling games. Every attempt on a random number generator is not just random. Rather, it is likewise independent of all the others. In this sense, preceding outcomes have no bearing upon the present or upcoming results. House advantage is a term used to refer to the mathematical advantage that the gambling operator has to guarantee that eventually, the house will generate money (Smitheringale, 2003). It is usually in a form of a percentage. It can go from a comparatively small value to a fairly huge percentage. For instance, the house advantage for blackjack players can be at approximately 1% while it can register to approximately 50% for those who play the lotteries (Smitheringale, 2003). The value corresponds to the amount in average that a player will suffer the loss of for each and every bet he or she makes. It is otherwise known as the percentage, theoretical win percentage, or house edge. There are those who use the term house advantage to refer to the odds of the game and try to avoid games with bad odds. Confusion regarding independent events and the so-called law of averages are at the core of many fallacies about gambling. Arguably, the most common of these is the gamblers’ fallacy. It is manifested in different forms. Some gamblers will bring into play this fallacy following a series of losses and chase, as they say those losses with larger bets, believing that their so-called luck must now change direction (Bewersdorff Kramer, 2004). The casino industry was build upon probability laws as well as on proper game analysis that can guarantee positive casino revenues on the long term. For some, the requisite fluctuations can be considered as bad luck or otherwise depending on the direction to where it leans toward. Nonetheless, in reality, as far as the gaming business is concerned, winning does not depend on pure luck, it lies rather in the math. References Bewersdorff, J. , Kramer, D. (2004). Luck, logic, and White Lies: The Mathematics of Games. Massachusetts: A K Peters, Ltd. Hannum, R. (2005). Risky Business: The Use and Misuse of Statistics in Casino Gaming. Chance, 18, 41-47. Smitheringale, B. (2003). FastFacts on Gambling. Addictions Foundation of Manitoba, 5-50. Vancura, O. , Cornelius, J. , Eadington, W. (2000). Finding the Edge: Mathematical Analysis of Casino Games. Reno: University of Nevada Press.

The Tesco Loyalty Card Scheme

The Tesco Loyalty Card Scheme Today the businesses have become customer centric and the marketing mix of 4 Ps is now being replaced by 30 Rs (Gummeson2008). Companies are more focused on delivering the value demanded by the customers, they are creating exit barriers for the customers by maintaining good relationships with them to retain them and earn lifetime loyalty. Today in highly competitive markets getting new customers is costlier and more difficult than maintaining the existing ones. So, companies are putting more emphasis on Zero Defection Strategy and maintaining their customer relationship as best as possible. In this essay we will critically evaluate the loyalty scheme run by Tesco to manage its customer relationship and the RM techniques followed by the company with different target segments that whether they are successful or need some improvement in future. TESCO PROFILE: Tesco, a European based company is the biggest and the most profitable supermarket chain in UK. It is considered to be the fastest growing company and a successful supermarket in the world selling almost everything, from food to clothing and operating through both geographic locations and internet. (Retail loyalty scheme2003, Corporate profile Tesco2004). Tescos success so far is based on its marketing relationship strategies which it has maintained through the launch of Club cards in 1995(Mitchell, Peck2007). It has effectively used the scheme targeting different customers segments, for attracting and retaining them. Tescos main approach is to create value for the customers and earn lifetime loyalty and they try harder for customers than anyone else. (Corporate profile Tesco2004). They have taken advantage of major changes in the lifestyle and it is the key for their continuous success. Relationship Marketing: Gronroos has defined relationship marketing as, An approach to establish, maintain and enhance relationship with the customers and other partners at a profit, so that objectives of the partners involved are met and this can be achieved by mutual exchange and fulfilment of promise. Thus, relationship marketing is an approach to establish and maintain good relationships with the customers in such a way that, no party is in loss and there is a room for profit for both the parties. Keeping customers in the first line of defence and winning their loyalty is the main theme of RM. Loyalty ladder Model: The model was suggested by Kotler 1997 for categorising customers on the basis of relations formed with them or repetition of purchases. Partners Members Advocates Clients Repeat customers First time customers Prospects Tesco Company uses loyalty ladder and commitment based segmentation to retain its existing customers and it has categorised them in 6 different stages. These are: logged on cautionary developing established dedicated logged off (needs win back the confidence) Tesco works with them in the sequence upside down as believe that newest customers can make an impression or lose it. Tesco uses automated event messaging for encouraging them for regular purchase. Whenever customers register themselves, they are prospect and needs motivation to buy. After 2 days, receives a registration e-mail along with  £5 discount on first purchase and the journey begins. Now they are first time customers or cautionary buying for the first time at discount and receive an e-mail asking about their experience and then another discount on next purchase. They keep on receiving bi- weekly alerts and e-newsletter on exclusive and personalised offers. On the top of mailing procedures the company offers Clubcard loyalty schemes to the dedicated customers with variety of incentives such as shop with the partners of Tesco, doubling the points on regular purchase and memberships with the clubs offered by Tesco. Now they are the established ones word of mouth will increase companys reputation and brand equity. By joining the clubs they become members of the company. If company comes to know that a customer is not buying for a long period then a reactive e-mail is sent to survey if he is having some problem with incentive of  £ 5. These are the logged off needs winning back the confidence with further incentives. Thus Tesco manages its customers and try not to lose them. RM techniques of Tesco, the loyalty card scheme: Customers loyalty plays an important role in RM, as their loyalty through repeat purchase and word of mouth with other customers can not only bring higher revenue for the company but new customers also. Tesco has managed all this through its Clubcard scheme; this is a membership card which allows the customers to save their money on shopping at any store of Tesco group of the companies or its partner companies and getting price off vouchers or Club card vouchers after collecting 150 points. As they win points on every pound they spend on shopping and after a limit these points get doubled, so such a scheme motivate the customers to buy more and earn points. On the other hand generate good revenue for Tesco groups. Such a loyalty scheme has enabled Tesco to increase its market share in grocery (squid2009) and overtake Sainsbury as a number one retailer. Following Tesco, many other companies like ASDA, Safeway and Sainsbury tried to run the loyalty card scheme but were unable to manage and match the success of Clubcard and failed. How club card helped in retaining existing and attracting new customers: The biggest challenge faced by the companies is to make their loyalty scheme, effective and appealing to the customers. Retailers need to clearly define the target segments, anticipate their needs and fulfil them properly to be successful (McGoldrick2002). Same is done by Tesco, as per the promise made by the company to create value for the customers it has provided club cards to the members and created following clubs where the members can shop and save money. Tesco targets 10 years old buy to 80 years old man as its customer and effectively offers benefits and value to all its targeted segments through these clubs. Members get magazines on different issues and price off vouchers from these clubs creating a creditability and loyalty for the company in the heart of the customers. The clubs for different segments are: Tesco Kids Club: This club offers products and fun culture for kids of age 5 to 8 years and it is their parents choice to join the club for kids and buy gifts for them. They provide them with the tips for safety and health of the kids to the parents to create creditability and soft corner on parents heart. (harlequin1,2001) Tesco Baby and Toddler club: This club offers tips and advice about the child care and pregnancy tips to would be parents or pregnant ladies. Club provides them parking area closer to the store to facilitate the ladies and such a deed builds strong relations and trust for the Tesco Company and customers prefer the club for a long. Tesco Healthy Living Club: The club offers magazines and booklets for health tips and it is for the middle aged or old people who want healthier living. It also provide price off coupons on organic and dairy foods to promote its Healthy and Organic foods and win creditability as a health conscious retailer. Tesco World of Wine Club: it provides a good and new range of wine for those to like to drink and promotes it through price offs to attract some new customers too. It also gives information about what kind of food goes with which wine. Tesco Food club: it provides its members cooking tips and teaches them techniques to cook easy, enjoyable and tasty food. How To videos for cooking facilitate the members to watch and learn the making of the meal and even they get mails about ideas for simple weekdays meal and menu. Like these Tesco have some more benefits too like greener living cards, association with Air miles company etc but its success is more dependent on its partnership with many other companies like Powergen electricity and gas supplier, beefeater restaurants, National Tyres and Avis car hire etc and customers can use the clubcards to deal with these companies also. Besides this, online shopping, Tesco petrol stations, Tesco mobile and credit cards also add points for the customers. Thus integrated approach of Tesco for maintaining relations both with the businesses and the customers helps the company to win trust of the customers. Clubcard as a CRM Tool The loyalty card scheme presented by Tesco acts as a CRM tool for the company collecting necessary information about customers buying habits and their specific needs. For getting club cards, customers have to get registered through filling a form online, on paper or through telephone. This form seeks the necessary information about the customers helping the company to design their marketing strategies as well as develop new products and offer them to the customers in a cost effective manner. Every year, nearly all the transactions held at Tesco are linked with the customers profile and now it has become companys philosophy to maintain and retain good relations with customers (ICMR, 2003). By getting information about the customers, company is able to understand its customers better and can serve them in the best possible way. Tesco consider the scheme as a learning process through which it can know about the customers, what they want from the retailer and how they shop and provide th em the value and benefits asked by the customers and promised by the company. (Humby, 2003) The reward system of discounts and price offs has enabled the company to successfully maintain the relations with the customers. Critical evaluation: Clubcards loyalty schemes have enabled Tesco to grow as a no.1 retailer in UK market leaving the competitors behind who were not able to run such schemes profitably. The Clubcard customers are also benefited by the schemes as they can shop and earn points with Tesco partners. Company listens and modifies its activities on their recommendations such as Wine club and Kids Club. (Rowley2007). But it was not successful in all the target market such as student segment.(Retail loyalty Scheme2003) and not able to still attract the students segment by offering them the benefits like special discounts as many retailers in UK do such as Peacocks, Apple store etc.(aceltham.co.uk2010). Also the redemption process of the vouchers is time consuming as it is through post and not online. Even the redemption value of the clubcard points is also very low. (Tesco2010). Not that loyalty schemes really makes the customer loyal because customers pay for the service they received which contributes to store loyalty and repetitive purchase.(Turner Wilson2006) So, it is necessary for Tesco to emotionally appeal the customers and manipulate their interest as in the competitive world switching to the competitor costs very low for the customers. Would Tesco be successful without the ClubCard: Tescos success depends on its targeting different segments and fulfilling their needs by developing strategies and products as per the demand. All this it can manage through its loyalty schemes. Many others companies have also tried such schemes, as Nectar, managed by Loyalty Management UK Ltd also offers the rewards and points on shopping from its members(Rowley2005) but not as successful as Clubcard. Tesco considered as CRM champion after the launch of loyalty scheme because it was able to win trust and loyalty of their customers both in behavioural and attitudinal form. The whole credit goes to the Tesco management who has effectively formulated the strategies for the target segments, derive information about their needs through their profile and delivered the value with the help of its CRM tools (ICMR2003). Even the rewards and benefits gained by the customers from its partners also helps in retaining the customers as they found it costlier to switch to other company. So, we can say without Clubcard, Tesco would have to struggle a lot to become as successful as it is now. Recommendations: Track the polygamous loyalty customers and provide them with better incentives for their better word of mouth as they deal with many loyalty schemes and make them feel that Tesco is better than others. Take advantage of modern communication technology and allow online chat rooms. Regular emotional attachment with the customers will lead to behavioural and attitudinal loyalty. Attract student segment by offering them additional discounts more than other segments. It costs five times more to acquire a new customer than to retain the existing one so company needs to apply positive switching barriers for customer retention.(Gee, Coates and Nicholson2008) Appropriate monitoring is required to evaluate that customer defection is not covered up by customer acquisition. (Gee, Coates and Nicholson2008) Tesco can provide a combination of currency-points flexibility. (Strategic Direction 2007) Analyse the LTV or estimated profitability of the customers and then allocate companys resources to them such as marketing spend. (Day, 2003) . Conclusion: After going through the relationship strategies and loyalty schemes of Tesco, it can be said that with the help of single loyalty scheme, it was able to target and address customer segments of different age groups. Club cards act as a CRM tool for the company and company has adopted the culture to follow the customers needs and reward them accordingly. Tesco has effectively managed the loyalty scheme and was able to win the trust and loyalty of the customers in return which helped the company to grow so far. It is advisable that company should maintain its relationship marketing strategy and loyalty scheme and redesign them as needed to provide the differentiated advantage to the customers forever. References: Gummeson Evert. (2008). Total Relationship Marketing. p36-40, third edition. Elsevier ltd. Mitchell H. Peck H. (2007). Does Tesco hold all cards. Cranfield school of management. Peck, Payne, Christopher, Clark. (1999). Relationship marketing for competitive advantage, keeping and winning customers. Reed educational and professional publishing ltd. Retail loyalty scheme, myth or marvel, Tesco. (2003). Available at : http://www.businessteacher.org.uk/free-marketing-essays/tesco-marketing-essay. Last accessed 3/04/2010. Tesco club card. (2010). Available at : http://www.tesco.com/clubcard/clubcard/clubs.asp. Last accessed 3/04/2010 Loyalty scheme helps tesco grow. (2009). E money news. Available at: http://www.squidcard.com/corporate/emoneynews/loyalty/loyalty-scheme-helps-tesco-grow218.html. Last accessed 3/04/2010 Tesco plc, company profile. (2010). Available at: http://uk.finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=TSCO.L. Last accessed 3/04/2010 Michael Jorgenson. (2009). Tesco.com. How they do it. Available at: http://www.scribd.com/doc/22655210/Tesco-com-%E2%80%9CHow-Do-They-Do-It-%E2%80%9D. Last accessed 3/04/2010 Corporate profile Tesco. (2004). Corporate watch. Available at: http://archive.corporatewatch.org/profiles/tesco/tesco1.htm. Last accessed 3/04/2010 Christian Grà ¶nroos. (1994). From Marketing Mix to Relationship Marketing: Towards a Paradigm Shift in Marketing Management Decision, Vol. 32 No. 2, , pp.4-20. MCB University Press Limited, 0025-1747. Harlequin1. (2001). Tesco kids club. Available at: http://www.dooyoo.co.uk/offline-shopping-misc/tesco/305681/. Last accessed 3/04/2010 ICMR. (2003). Tesco- the customer relationship management champion. Available at: http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Marketing/MKTG070.htm. Last accessed 3/04/2010 McGoldrick, P. (2002). Retail Marketing 2nd edition. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill. Humby, C., Hunt, T. Philips, T. (2003). Scoring Points: How Tesco is winning customer loyalty 1st Edition: Kogan Page Limited. Rowley J. (2005). Customer relationship management through the Tesco Clubcard loyalty scheme. International Journal of retail and distribution management, Vol. 33, p196-206. Rowley J. (2007). Reconceptualising the strategic role of loyalty schemes. Journal of Consumer Marketing, p.366-374 Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Peacocks special offer. (2010). Available at: http://www.aceltham.co.uk/acebusinesses.php?id=217. Last accessed 3/04/2010 Apple store. (2010). Students discounts. Available at: http://store.apple.com/uk/browse/home/education_routing. Last accessed 3/04/2010 Tesco. (2010). Clubcard points. Available at: http://www.tesco.ie/clubcarddeals/. Last accessed 5/04/2010 Turner Wilson. (2006). Grocery loyalty. Tesco Club card. British Food Journal, Vol. 108 No. 11, 2006, pp. 958-964. Gee, Coates and Nicholson. (2008). Understanding and profitably managing customer loyalty. Marketing Intelligence Planning, Vol. 26 No. 4, 2008, pp. 359-374 Strategic direction. (2007). Vol. 23, No.2, pp 18-22. Day, G. (2003), Creating a superior customer-relating capability, MIT Sloan Management, Review, Spring, pp. 77-82. TATA STEEL (B2B) CONTEXT Contents: Abstract 12 Introduction 12 Tata Steel Profile 12 Branding Steel 12 Customer Base Brand Equity Model 13-14 The Initiatives act as CRM tools 15 Benefits Reaped with Branding 16 Critical evaluation 16 Recommendations Conclusion 16 References 17 Abstract: The report is about the B2B relationship of Tata Steel Company that how they manage their relationships with their business customers and the techniques they apply for the same. Critical evaluation will be done of the techniques that whether these are appropriate or any recommendation required will be given to the company. Introduction: B2B marketing is the practise of doing business with other organisations or the businesses not the ultimate consumers. This practise is not new and is old as commerce itself but the concept of B2b marketing is quite recent. Companies sell their products to other companies and organisations to resell them or use the components or products for manufacturing the stuff, they are offering to the end users or support their activities. Today the focus is on maintaining relations with the customers as who is the customer today will be tomorrow also if they are being treated well. (Morgan Hunt1994)The organisation has to manage these relationships for acquisition and retention of the customers. For acquisition they need to create value for them and for retention they need to enhance the value offered or sustain it. (Morris, Pitt, Honeycutt2001). We will evaluate the B2B approach followed by the Tata Steel, the model followed to collect information about their business customers and strategies they followed to make their customer happy. Tata Steel Profile: Tata steel, a part is Tata Group is the worlds sixth largest steel producer operating in more than 20 countries. In past few years with the investment in Corus, millennium steel and NatSteel Holdings the company is able to create a marketing and manufacturing network in South East Asia, Pacific-rim countries and Europe with the capacity to produce every year 30 million tonnes of crude steel. (docstoc.com2010, Tata steel 2010) In year 2001 and 2005, it was ranked as worlds best steel company. (Kotler2006). The profitability of the steel companies depend on the business cycles, they can make profit in the times of boom in the economy and loose it in the recession. Even the external environmental factors also affects the revenue generation of the companies. So to reduce the dependence on the business cycles and make continuous flow of revenue Tata steel adopted the strategy of branding,(ICMR2004) so that customers would buy the brand and pay the premium for the value added services provided to them with the brands. Tata Steel has also launched various initiatives for promoting its brands such as CVM, RVM, CAMs and ecommerce. The strategy they follow to create relationships with the business customers is branding, CRM initiatives and e commerce. Branding steel: A successful business marketer knows the customer needs and offers them the same. Tata has also recognised its customers in two segments the end users and businesses organisations using steel for the manufacturing of their products mainly automotive industries such as Maruti, Ford, Telco, Honda etc and realised that 80% of the sales is being covered by these business sectors, so it formulated different strategies for B2B and B2C segments. The companys B2B customers are more knowledgeable and brands help to create good finance and public awareness for the company. (Kotler,2006). So, Tata steel branded its products under following brands: Tata Steelium for cold rolled steel Tata Shaktee for galvanized sheets Tata Tiscon for re-bar Tata Wiron for wires Tata Agrico for hand tools and implements Tata Pipes etc. Customer Based Brand Equity Model: The model was suggested by Keller(1993,2001,2003) and constitutes of four stages through which brand is created and built its equity and strong relations with the customers. The model can be used in both B2C and B2B context. The model is in form of ladder going upward and it is subdivided in form of blocks in pyramid. (Kuhn Alpert, Keller2001) Lets see how Tata Steel branding policy fits in the CBBE model. http://www.frost.com/prod/servlet/cio/142401287 The model has four phases for creating, enhancing and maintaining relationship with the customers through brands. Creating identity for the company or the product: First of all the company needs to create awareness among the business customers about the product. Variety of steel is available in the Indian steel market and it becomes really difficult for the customers to differentiate that which one will be suitable for their use. Keeping that in mind, Tata Steel focused on customers need and then branded the steel to facilitate its business customers. Now they can order the variety or brand needed. Delivering value: The company realised that its B2B customers are more knowledgeable than ultimate customers, they dont buy the brand rather are keener about the quality, specificity and performance of the steel. So, for better performance of the product and satisfying customers psychological needs the company has promoted the brands in accordance with its usage as Tata Tiscon for constructional bars and Tata Shaktee for roofing and NatSteel for cold rolls etc. For making the scheme successful, brand management department has been created in 2002 to evaluate and train the staff and sales personnel accordingly. They focused on making more and more interactions with the customers to understand their needs and offer them the needful in a better and improved way. They made their branded products highly value added to beat the industry and take the company to new heights of success. (Kotler2006). Following the excellence model of Tata (TBEM), the company kept on making improvements in its offerings and undertaken many initiatives such as Retail Value Management, Customer Value Management and Customer Accounts Managers to help their business customers in brand promotion, building brand equity and solving their grievances.(Improvement initiatives,2009) Customers positive responses: It is related with the responses given by the customers on the basis of the judgement and feelings associated with the brand that how far the products were successful in satisfying their needs.(Keller2001) With the continuous improvement in the offerings and CRM initiatives the company was able to place itself as the Worlds Best Steel Company in 2001 and 2005,(Kotler 2006) by the studies done by World Steel Dynamics, USA. Its bearing division became the preferable supplier for Hero Honda and Toyota motors and they recognised the company as Zero ppm Supplier and Direct Online Supplier. (docstoc2010) Maintaining strong relationships: Tata steel was successful in making strong relationships with its business customers and 60% of its products are sold through contracts and company spend 1.3% of its turnover in maintaining its brands.(Kotler2006). Branding of steel is providing the business customers a stable price of the commodity which creates a good impact on the business customers mind. Aligning with the Tata Groups internationalisation initiatives, the company was able to acquire NatSteel Asia and Corus UK as both the companies were seeking to establish long strategic alliances with the reputed steel companies of the world and Tata was able to do so with its deep social commitment towards society, trusted and reputed relations with the stakeholders.(Noronha2006,2007) The initiatives for maintaining successful relationships: Along with the branding, some more customer centric initiatives has been undertaken by the company for better understanding of the customers and direct and continuous interaction with them to maintain strong relationships with their customers. (improvement initiatives2010) Retail Value Management: The initiative was started in 2002 to redefine the concept of retailing and build stronger relations with the rural retailers by educating them about the selling techniques and customers need. The company has planned to target the small retailers operating in the rural areas and enhance the retail chain to near about 4000 retailers and serve the rural market personally by integrating retailers in the program and research done by the company help the retailers in selling the product according to the customers specific need. (Media releases Tata,2006, High beam research2006) Customer Value management: Tata steel has started the initiative to retain and build strong relationships with its customers. These were designed to deeply understand needs of the business customers and deliver improved value added products. They build teams to study the value chain of operations like receiving, storing, deploying of steel by the customers and even rejection. The company was able to understand the problems related with the value chain and provide deep insights to solve them at an effective and less cost. Thus company was able to win loyalty of the customers by making the supply chain (sales team, dealers and retailers) more customer focused and customer sensitive (Pullanikkat 2010, Economic times 2007) Customer account manager: Company has maintained separate accounts for the customers for improvement and focus on business customers. The accounts were categorised as under: Enterprise accounts: potentially large and long term accounts. Commercial accounts: the key accounts Distribution: for the customers accessed through distributors. (docstoc2010) Such an initiative helped the company to classify their customers on the basis of their transactions and now they can deal with these customers accordingly. This also helped in solving their problems and grievances and increase interaction with them for better understanding. (Kotler2006, scribd.com2009) E business: Tata steel has started the initiative for e business looking forward to tap the opportunities of information technology. These are E-procurement and E-sales, the e- procurement allows the business customers to get multi dimensional information, such as online and offline quotations logging for auction, inbound supply chain, order placement, material receipt and delivery compliance monitoring. Some new and value added features like negotiation chat rooms for reverse auction, e-mail notifications and acknowledgement and FAQs are also offered. (E-procurement system, Tata steel 2010) Benefits Reaped: The Company is able to succeed so far due to the its relationship marketing through branding, strategic alliances as well as other initiatives focused on customers need and building long term relationships with them. Through its strategic alliances especially with Corus, the company has moved on from fifty sixth position to the sixth largest steel maker in the world.(Norohna2007). Mr Muthuraman, managing director, Tata Steel says Branding helped the company in gaining both the tangible benefits in form of pricing and intangible benefits in form of loyal customers. The successful RM startegy so far has made Tata Steel Worlds Best Steel company and has started co branding initiative in 2003 with the automobile companies such as Ashok Leyland and Telco (ICMR2004) and has decided to move on with co-branding in consumer durable sector. Critical evaluation: B2B customers focused more on functionality or performance rather than taste or aesthetics as customers on consumer market do. (Anderson Narus,1999). Tata steel has taken the initiative of branding steel to protect itself from fluctuations in business cycles and set a premium price on steel through brands. Through its regular upgrading and customer focus was able to become the most preferable brands in steel. But there are price sensitive customers in industry that seems steel as a commodity not a brand and are not ready to pay premium prices for that. The company needs to educate and create awareness among these customers.(Norohna2003). Tata steel is selling steel under different brand so it should be careful that customers may not be intense and actively loyal with all the brands, they may experience resonance with a particular brand.(Keller2001). Branding is related with making a promise to the customer and delivering it so far but if in any case company fails to deliver the bran d meaning it can lose its market position and customer may move on to the competitors. Online branding technique is now getting popular in western countries and as Tata steel operates in six continents why hasnt taken the initiative yet? The company also finds challenging, the management of the channel to sell the branded products in near future, says Mr Muthuraman. Conclusion and Recommendations: The above report shows the Tata steel strategy followed for B2B relationship marketing. The company has managed it with branding the steel and remained customer centric by adopting and launching various initiatives like CVM, RVM, CAMs and e-commerce. As, it has been noticed that branding has not only helped the company to generate regular flowing revenue but also helped in maintaining long term relationships with the customers and become the preferable supplier of the customers. Such initiative has also made feel the importance of relationship marketing to the other steel makers. Along with the success, relations with business customers have brought about new challenges for the company which needs some recommendations: Regular check on the product quality is needed as brands provide quantitative and qualitative satisfaction to the customers. Brand awareness among the price sensitive customers as among these some can turn to be the loyal customers. Online branding initiative should